What is a kidney? How are kidneys distinguished? Leafy and flower buds, their location on the stem. How kidneys are distinguished

In the crown of an adult fruit tree there are many kidneys that differ in structure, biological characteristics and functions. Some buds develop annually and form leaves, shoots, flowers, fruits. Others do not wake up and remain asleep for a number of years.

A - fruit b - growth;
1- buds; 2 - inner covering leaves; 3 - renal scales; 4-axis part of the kidney

Buds differ in function - vegetative and flowering, in location - apical and lateral. Vegetative buds are divided into leaf and growth buds. By appearance they are almost indistinguishable. A short stalk (1-2 cm) with a rosette of leaves from two to three to seven to eight (in an apple tree) develops from a leaf bud. Such short shoots are called rosette. The leaves on them are very close to each other.
Stronger shoots arise from growth buds. Their leaves are at a distance of 2-3 cm (at the apple tree). Nodes and internodes are clearly visible on the shoots. The parts of the stems that bear the leaves are called stem nodes, and the spaces between the nodes are called internodes. The sizes of growth shoots (for example, in an apple tree) range from 5-10 to 40-50 cm.
Dormant and accessory buds are also vegetative. Dormant buds remain dormant for several years and awaken in cases of freezing, drying out of branches, mechanical damage, etc. Such buds represent an important reserve for the restoration of the tree's body and are widely used in its rejuvenation, replacement of low-value parts with new ones, young ones with more valuable ones, etc. There are many dormant Buds in seed-bearing breeds (apple, pear). Cherries, sweet cherries and some other stone fruits have much less of them. For a long time, the dormant buds of apple and pear (20-30 years or more) retain their viability, they are less durable in sweet cherry, apricot, plum, cherry, peach and even less in berry plants.
Accessory kidneys do not have a definite location, they are found mainly between the nodes and in the nodes of the stem. They are invisible to the naked eye. From the adventitious buds located on the stems (mainly in the lower parts), stem shoots arise, from the adventitious buds on the roots - root shoots. Accessory buds are used for vegetative propagation of plants by cuttings, layering, whiskers, etc.
Flower buds are divided into simple and mixed.
Simple buds are cherry, sweet cherry, plum, peach, apricot, almond, walnut, hazel, lemon, red currant. Mixed buds of apple, pear, quince, hawthorn, irgi, medlar, figs, chestnuts, pistachios, olives, black currants, gooseberries, blackberries, grapes, cranberries. In some stone fruit, mixed buds appear in some years, and in pome fruit, pure, flowering ones. Mixed buds in stone fruits appear more often on young trees, less often on old trees, and even then only under favorable nutritional conditions.
Group kidneys found in stone fruit - peach, sweet cherry, apricot, almond, cherry, plum. All group buds are simple, most of them are flowering and only one - the upper one - is vegetative. The peach has triple buds: the central one is flowering, on the sides are vegetative. In a plum of Asian origin, in one group, you can find up to six to seven buds, among which the apical bud is vegetative, the lateral ones are flowering. Plums of European origin have fewer group buds in one node, but the principle of their placement is the same - the apical bud is vegetative, the lateral ones are flowering. In cherries, group buds are collected in small groups resembling a miniature bouquet, which is why they are called bouquet twigs. On each such bouquet, the apical bud is vegetative, the lateral ones are flowering.
The vegetative bud has an expanded base (i.e., an expanded stem part), covering bud scales that protect the inner parts of the bud, folded leaves, leaf tubercles, an axial part and a growth cone.
Inside the bud is a shortened stalk, or the axis of the stalk, where the leaf buds are located. The very tip of a short stalk is called a taper. It consists of tissue, the cells of which, when dividing, increase the axis of the stem. The flower bud, in addition to the indicated parts, has the rudiments of the flower stem, the outer parts of the flower, sepals, corolla petals, stamens and pistils. The outer part of the kidney consists of dense protective integuments - covering scales, which protect the inner parts of the kidney from adverse environmental conditions and mechanical damage. In addition, the covering scales also have a physiological effect on the inner parts of the kidney, since they (outer covers) contain nutrients.
The escape is the growth of the current year with leaves and buds. A shoot that has shed leaves is called an annual growth, or an annual branch. At the beginning of the growing season, the shoot is young, in the middle of summer it is an adult, at the end of the growing season and at the end of the growing season it is old.

1 - apple tree; 2 - pear; 3 - cherry; 4 - sweet cherry; 5 - plum; 6 - apricot; 7- peach

The figure shows the growth shoots of various fruit species. In some breeds, the shoots are straight, in others they are slightly sinuous, geniculate. The apple tree shoots are straight, even. Growth shoots are usually highly developed, have well-formed buds and internodes of normal size. Fruit shoots, as a rule, are weaker than growth ones, of shorter length; their internodes are close together. On such shoots, fruit and vegetative buds are usually located alternately. Some breeds only have fruit buds (peach) on fruit shoots.
Growth shoots differ in the place of origin, strength of growth, size of internodes and other characteristics. According to the place of origin, they are divided into three groups: a) arising from the apical and lateral buds; b) from sleeping kidneys; c) from the adventitious kidneys.
In the growth shoot, the terminal and lateral buds are vegetative.
Strong shoots that grow closer to the base of perennial branches and occupy a perpendicular position with respect to the branch are called tops. Distinctive feature of these shoots is that they have long internodes and no ring at the base. They appear in connection with the age variability of the plant, damage by frost, etc.
From the adventitious buds of the underground part of the stem, undergrowth, and from the adventitious buds on the roots - root suckers. Arising from stage young embryonic tissues, they possess high growth energy and the ability to branch intensively. This ability is widely used in the practice of fruit growing during vegetative propagation of plants by cuttings, layering, whiskers, etc.
Propagated vegetatively by stem parts of strawberries (whiskers), currants and gooseberries (cuttings, layering). Raspberries, cherries of some varieties, plums reproduce by root suckers.
Shoots thickening... When forming young tree leave, in addition to the main trunk, five to six lateral shoots (future skeletal branches); the rest of the underlying shoots are pinched and turned into thickening shoots. They increase the assimilation surface, improve metabolism, enrich the stem and branches with reserve nutrients and make them more durable and resistant to adverse conditions. A feature of thickening shoots is their fragility. Shoots of thickening are cut out one to two months before the end of the growing season, so that the wounds on the trunk can overgrow.
Summer shoots... Summer, or premature, shoots occur more often in stone fruits with early buds and prone to abundant branching. Usually shoots of apple, pear and other pome species do not branch during the growing season. In peach, apricot and other stone fruit, shoots branch out in the year of their appearance. In summer, along with progressive growth, the awakening of the kidneys begins, which quickly passed the development cycle. Axillary buds germinate in the middle of the shoot and develop into summer shoots. There are summer shoots near an apple or pear, but they do not grow from axillary buds, but from an apical shoot bud. This happens when, due to unfavorable conditions in the first half of the growing season, the plant stops growing early and forms buds. And with the onset of favorable conditions in the second half of the growing season, the formed apical buds awaken and secondary growth begins.
Summer shoots differ from ordinary (spring) shoots in a weakly expressed annual ring at the base. The shoots of the second half of the growing season have two rings: spring - at the base of the initial growth and summer - at the base of the second growth wave.
On any shoot, nodes, internodes, leaves with stipules, buds (eyes), scars from kidney scales, and lentils are distinguished.
The figure shows the components of an apple tree shoot. On the shoot, the outer annual ring is clearly visible, which is the border of the growth. From such rings, it is easy to establish not only the age of the branch, but also the entire tree. The growth ring is located at the very base of the shoot. It was formed from traces of fallen bud scales, pre-leaves and lower leaves of the shoot. On the bark of the shoot, there are lenticels in the internodes in the form of small dashes or specks. Lentils do not have integumentary tissues, freely pass air through the intercellular spaces to the core of the shoot and provide gas exchange.
In some varieties, the stem nodes are swollen and clearly visible on the surface of the stem; in others, they seem to be pressed against the stem. In the width of their base, the nodes in most breeds and varieties do not exceed the thickness of the stem.

Figure: 5. The structure of the apple tree shoot
1 - annual ring; 2 - leaf pad; 3 - petiole; 4 - stipules; 5 - piece of iron; 6 - leaf blade; 7 - axillary buds - eyes; 8 - nodes; 9 - internodes; 10 - lentils

The stem is the part of the plant that connects the main organs of nutrition - the root and leaves.

The stem with leaves or buds located on it is called escape. Each shoot develops from a bud. Remember: the leaves can be arranged alternately, opposite and whorled. The places where the leaves are located are callednodes, and the sections between the two nearest nodes are called internodes.

There are elongated shoots with long internodes and shortened ones with short internodes and contiguous nodes.

The angle between the sheet and the internode lying above it is called leaf sinuses.

At the top of the shoot there is usually apical kidney, and in the axils of the leaves - axillary, or lateral, kidneys.

Studying seed germination, you observed the development of a shoot from the embryonic seed bud

beans. How does the shoot from the bud located on the stem develop? Consider a poplar or apple tree shoot. At the top of these shoots, there is one apical bud. On the sides of each branch, in the places where the leaves were, lateral buds are located.

Lateral buds are located on the stem in the same way as leaves. On the branches of the poplar and apple, the buds are located one by one, one after the other. This arrangement is called next. Many trees and shrubs have the next arrangement of buds: cherry, birch, bird cherry, hazel and others.

If we consider shoots of lilac, elderberry, jasmine, honeysuckle or indoor plant fuchsia, we will see a completely different placement of the kidneys. They are arranged in pairs, one opposite the other -opposite. Let's see what structures the kidneys have.

The kidney is outside covered with dense leatheryscales, protecting it from rain, wind and other adverse conditions.

Let's cut off one of the buds from the shoot and examine it with a magnifying glass. Under the scales are clearly visiblerudimentary stemlocated in the very center of the kidney, and small, wrinkled rudimentary leaves. In the axils of these leaves areRudimentary buds, similar to grains, hardly noticeable even in a magnifying glass. Thus, the kidney is rudimentary escape.

If you cut several buds, you can see that inside some around the rudimentary shoot, only rudimentary leaves are located. These kidneys are called vegetative or leafy. Inside other buds, rudimentary buds are visible. it flower buds.

Flower buds can be distinguished from vegetative ones in appearance. They are larger than vegetative ones and have a rounded shape.

By the location of the buds on the shoots, their shape, size, color, pubescence and some other signs characteristic of eachplant species, you can determine the name of the tree or shrub even in winter.

When identifying trees and shrubs in winter, look for the following kidney-specific symptoms.

The buds are usually located directly on the stem. An exception is alder. In alder, they sit on special legs, and by this feature, as well as by the earrings and small cones, alder can be easily distinguished from other trees. Poplar is recognized by its sticky resinous pointed buds, which have a peculiar pleasant smell. The willow bud is covered with only one scale resembling a cap. Buckthorn has no kidney scales at all. The oblong large rowan buds are pubescent and therefore well distinguishable from the buds of other trees.

The bud is a very shortened shoot with rudimentary leaves or reproductive organs. Buds can be vegetative, with the rudiments of shoots and leaves; generative, bearing the rudiments of a flower or inflorescence, mixed. By location, the buds are distinguished apical (at the end of the shoot) and axillary (at the nodes between the leaf petiole and the stem).

According to their functional significance, dormant buds are distinguished, which do not bloom annually and remain alive for many years. And they wake up when the superior part of the stem is removed. Shoots are formed from them. Accessory buds are formed inside stems, leaves, roots from cells of various tissues and provide vegetative propagation... Dormant buds form on those organs that do not die off during the winter or drought. A dormant period is mandatory for them, then they provide perennial existence of woody or herbaceous plants.

When the seed germinates, the shoot develops from the bud of the seed embryo. In perennial plants, a bud gives rise to a shoot. A bud is a rudimentary shoot. It consists of a shortened stem with closely spaced rudimentary leaves. At the apex of the stem, there is a growth cone consisting of educational tissue. Due to the division of the cells of the growth cone, the stem grows in length, the formation of leaves and external buds. Outside, the bud is protected by kidney scales, which are modified lower leaves of the shoot. By location on the shoot, the buds are apical and lateral.

Apical kidney

This is the bud located at the top of the shoot, the rest of the buds are lateral. They are divided into axillary and adventitious.

Axillary kidneys

They regularly arise in the axils of young leaf primordia near the apex of the maternal shoot. Their location exactly matches the leaf arrangement. Therefore, in winter, the location of the leaves can be determined by the buds.

Lateral kidneys

They develop outside the sinus on internodes, roots and leaves, are called adventitious. They often provide vegetative propagation of plants. The adventitious buds on the leaves immediately develop into small plants with adventitious roots, which fall off the leaf of the mother plant and grow into new individuals. These buds are called brood buds (bryophyllium, sundew). They can arise in the leaf axils and transform into bulbs (tiger lily) and nodules (viviparous mountaineer).

The kidneys are not the same in structure. In most plants, they are closed (protected), because on the outside they have kidney scales glued together with resin (in conifers), other sticky substances (poplar), some are often omitted. There are plants with open (unprotected, bare) buds. They are devoid of kidney scales (viburnum, buckthorn).

According to the internal structure, the following types of kidneys are distinguished:

1) vegetative - they consist of a rudimentary stem, scales, rudimentary leaves and a growth cone;
2) generative - floral, consist of a rudimentary stem, scales and rudiments of a flower or inflorescence (elderberry red);
3) mixed - consist of a rudimentary stem, scales, rudimentary leaves and rudiments of a flower or inflorescence (apple tree, spirea).

Generative and mixed buds are larger and more rounded than vegetative ones.

Buds that are dormant (autumn - winter), and then unfold and give new shoots, are called hibernating or renewal buds. Due to them, there is an increase in shoots.

Dormant kidneys

They have been dormant for a number of years. The stimulus for their awakening is damage to the trunk.



The kidneys are paired organs that resemble beans in shape. The kidneys have rounded upper and lower poles, anterior and posterior surfaces. The inner concave part of the kidney forms a gate. Veins, arteries, nerves and the ureter pass through them, which originates from the pelvis and passes through the cystic ( distal) end into the bladder. Normally, the kidneys are located approximately at the level of the 12th rib on both sides of the spinal column in the retroperitoneal space. The left kidney is slightly higher than the right one. From above, they are covered with a dense fibrous membrane. Each kidney weighs approximately 150-200 g.

In the kidney, two layers are distinguished:
The dark cortex consists of renal corpuscles and nephron tubules. They filter ( cleansing) blood;
The lighter colored medulla consists of 15-20 cone-shaped renal pyramids, which are longitudinally lined with tubules. The tops of the pyramids protrude into the kidney sinus, where they merge to form the renal papillae. The papillae smoothly turn into small, and then into large renal cups in the amount of 2 to 4. The large renal cups are ducts connecting the small renal cups with the renal pelvis.

The nephron is a complex functional unit of the kidney. It distinguishes between a small body and a tubule. The structures of the nephron are functionally connected with the vessels. In total, there are from 1 to 2 million nephrons. Almost 80% of nephrons are located in the renal cortex.

Kidney function

Urine formation.
The process of urination consists of: 1) glomerular filtration; 2) tubular reabsorption; 3) osmotic concentration of urine. From 100 to 150 liters of blood passes through the filtering surface of the kidneys per day, from which only 1.5-2.5 liters of secondary urine is formed. The kidneys filter the blood, returning useful substances to it: protein, sugar, enzymes, vitamins, etc.;
Regulation of blood pressure.
In the thickness of the cortical layer of the kidney, between the arterial and venous capillaries, there are cells that synthesize the hormone renin. Under its influence, the regulation of a fine and complex mechanism is carried out, which ensures the constancy of vascular tone, blood pressure;
Hematopoiesis function.
In addition to renin, the kidneys produce erythropoietin, which gives the command to replenish the bloodstream with fresh erythrocytes in time;
Regulation of the constancy of the internal environment.
The kidneys regulate the content of various proteins in the blood ( oncotic pressure) and acid-base balance. The balance between alkalis and acids is carried out due to the elimination of either acidic or alkaline products from the body.

Kidney development during the embryonic period and in the child

Kidney development takes place in three stages:
1) prefab ( pronephros); 2) primary kidney ( mesonephros); 3) the final kidney ( metanephros).
The final kidney begins to form from the 7th week of embryo development, gradually moving to the abdominal part from the pelvis. In newborns, the renal tubules are narrower and shorter than in adults. Up to 2 years of age, the nephron is poorly differentiated. Only by the age of 5 does the structure and functioning of the kidneys of a child resemble those of an adult.

Kidney disease

Pyelonephritis - inflammation with subsequent deformation of the calyx - pelvic system and involvement of the renal parenchyma in the pathological process. The cause of the disease is often associated with an infection that can enter the kidneys by a hematogenous or ascending route. Promotes infection from the urethra or bladder ascending hypothermia. The kidneys can easily get cold if you wear out-of-season clothes and shoes during the cool season. People with diabetes mellitus and pregnant women often suffer from pyelonephritis. With pyelonephritis, the lower back usually hurts. At first, this pain can be confused with myositis or osteochondrosis. In addition to pain, swelling, decreased appetite, increased body temperature, changes in blood and urine tests ( increased ESR, leukocytes, etc.);
Cyst kidney is an abnormal, benign change in the structure of kidney tissue. The walls of the cyst consist of a thin connective tissue sheath. The cyst cavity is filled with lemon liquid - yellow color... They can be single or multiple and occur at any age. The size of the cyst is from 1 to 10 cm. As a rule, small cysts do not disrupt the kidney function and often do not manifest themselves in any way;
Polycystic kidney - a disease in which multiple cysts are formed in the kidney tissue of the child even during the period of intrauterine development. The causes of polycystic disease are associated with certain viral diseases that a woman may have suffered during pregnancy. The disease, in most cases, is asymptomatic. In the case when the tumor occupies a large area of \u200b\u200bthe renal parenchyma and disrupts their functioning, the following symptoms are possible: dull pain in the lumbar region, polyuria ( large flow of urine), impaired appetite, thirst, etc.;
Crayfish kidney is a malignant disease, the causes of which are not fully known. But the predisposing factors are well studied, which include: smoking, radiation, chronic kidney disease in the terminal stage, frequent use of certain drugs, contact with cadmium, etc. Patients in the first stage of cancer do not notice any signs of the disease. When the tumor begins to grow and metastasize, patients note: fatigue, back pain, hematuria ( discharge of blood in the urine), anemia, arterial hypertension, etc.;
Hydronephrosis - violation of the outflow of urine from the calyx-pelvic system of the kidneys, followed by its expansion ( pyelectasis) and an increase in hydrostatic pressure in it, atrophy of the renal parenchyma and deterioration of its main functions. The reasons for acquired hydronephrosis include: inflammatory changes in the urinary system ( pyelonephritis), kidney stones, traumatic narrowing, tumors, injuries spinal cord, which lead to a violation of the innervation of the urinary organs and the outflow of urine. Hydronephrosis is dangerous for its complications. One of them is a rupture of the pelvis or calyx. In this case, the accumulated urine is poured into the retroperitoneal space.

Diagnosis of kidney disease

#1. Laboratory methods:
A complete blood count allows you to determine inflammation ( increased ESR, leukocytes);
Common urine tests for kidney disease include general analysis and Zimnitsky's test. According to the modified general analysis urine can be judged on many diseases not only of the kidneys, but also of other organs. The increased content of protein and hematuria indicates inflammation, which occurs with pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, etc. Glucosuria ( increased amount of sugar in urine) indicates diabetes mellitus, etc. Zimnitsky's test helps to determine the concentration function of the kidneys.

#2. Instrumental methods:
Inexpensive, generally available, informative method kidney examination is ultrasound. It can help you determine the shape, size, location, kidney. Various pathological formations are successfully recognized: stones, sand, tumors, prolapse of the kidneys ( nephroptosis) and etc.;
Help clarify the cause of kidney disease modern methods: MRI and angiography;
Excretory urography is a radiographic examination of the kidneys, which makes it possible to judge the patency of the urinary tract. The method is also useful for kidney failure.

Treatment and prevention of kidney disease

Conservative treatment in the form of prescribing various drugs is effective for pyelonephritis, glomerulonephritis, urolithiasis, etc. In combination with traditional therapy, it is quite effective folk treatment... Herbs such as bearberry, lingonberry leaf, field horsetail, etc. are actively prescribed by therapists to relieve symptoms of inflammation. Specially designed diets №7, №7а, №7b help to cope well with various kidney diseases.

Various benign and malignant tumors are subject to prompt removal. As a rule, with a malignant tumor, not only the kidney is removed ( nephrectomy), but also the surrounding tissues. In addition to the operation, chemotherapy and radiation therapy are prescribed.

Kidney stone disease is one of the most common kidney diseases. Therapist and surgeon are involved in her treatment. Depending on the size, number and location of stones, the doctor decides on the method by which it will be removed. Previously, open abdominal surgeries were performed, which were characterized by long recovery and various complications. Modern surgical methods are characterized by rapid recovery. These include: the endoscopic method, the destruction of a stone through a puncture in the lumbar region, crushing of stones by the method of shock wave lithotripsy, removal of stones through the urinary tract, etc.

Kidney transplant

In the event that the kidneys do not perform their function or need to be removed, a healthy donor kidney transplant can be performed as replacement therapy. Important requirements for the donor and recipient: compliance with the blood group and Rh factor, age, gender and weight. A kidney from a living donor takes root better. The kidney is not transplanted immediately, but only after special preparation. It is processed and stored for up to 72 hours in a special solution. Usually, your kidneys are not removed to the recipient. The donor kidney is placed in the iliac fossa, usually the right one. Kidney transplants are carried out in all developed countries. The price of a kidney in the Russian Federation ranges from $ 10,000 to $ 100,000.

Prevention of kidney disease comes down to adherence general rules healthy lifestyle. It is important that there are no foci of chronic infection in the body ( carious teeth, inflamed tonsils, etc.), which are a source of infection that enters the kidneys by the hematogenous route and causes various diseases.