Thinker of China. Philosophy of Ancient China. Confucianism. Taoism. Moism. Legalism. From the biography of Confucius

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. in China, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, nature is taking shape philosophy about the will of Heaven. It was argued that everything in the world depends on the predestination of heaven. Sovereign (van) He spoke to his subjects as "Son of Heaven", and the country itself was called "Celestial". Mythological worldview Ancient China suggested that in ancient times the world was a formless chaos. Then two spirits appeared in him - yin(feminine) and Jan(masculine) that formed the earth and sky. Yang, the bright beginning, expressed the properties of the sky, south, sun, day, life, strength. Yin represented the north, darkness, death, earth, moon, weakness, even numbers. Yin and Yang oppose each other, but at the same time they depend on each other, interpenetrate each other, being the beginning of being, which is expressed in a well-known emblem.

In the VI century. BC. philosophy flourishes in China, thinkers, who are called "perfectly wise," begin to play a large role in society. The main topics in the philosophy of China were the issues of governance of the country, relations between different groups in society, philosophy was used in developing recommendations for organizing public life. The struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical trends, which are called one hundred schools although in reality there were significantly fewer major currents.

Consider some of the schools of thought that have greatest influence on the culture and political life of China.

Taoism- non-doing management. Founder of Taoism Lao Tzu("old thinker" or " old child"). According to legend, the mother carried him in the womb for 81 years, and he was born from her thigh in 604 BC. The newborn had gray hair, which made him look like an old man. For most of his life he served as keeper of the imperial archives and librarian. At an advanced age, he left the country for the west. When he reached the border outpost, its chief asked Lao Tzu to tell him about his teachings. The sage fulfilled the request by writing the text "Dao Te Zip"(“The Book of the Way of Life”), after which he left China forever.

The central concept of this doctrine is "dao"- the universal regularity of the world, the fundamental principle of everything that exists, the universal Law and the Absolute, in accordance with which the development of the Universe takes place. In Taoism, the difficulty of comprehending the Tao is repeatedly emphasized. Tao is incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible in action. Inexpressible in words, Tao is understood as non-existence, which gives rise to being.

Besides Tao, there is "de". This is a kind of universal force, a principle by which the Tao as the way of things can take place. It is also the method by which one can conform to the Tao. Te is a principle, a way of being. If Tao is the root cause, then it is concretized and materialized through de.

The reason for all the hardships and calamities lies in the fact that the operation of Tao is violated in society; instead of the natural Tao, people have created a human Tao that serves the interests of the rich and harms the poor. We must return to the natural Tao, to the patriarchal community, where there were no rich and poor, exploitation and oppression.

The main idea of ​​Lao Tzu is the creation of such a system of state administration, which is built on inaction (principle "wu-wei”), the best way to realize the Tao. The “perfectly wise” ruler lets everything take its natural course. He does not interfere in anything, does not interfere with the Tao. Therefore, "the best ruler is the one about whom they know only that he exists." The most reasonable behavior is the desire for calm, moderation.

Taoism gradually degenerated into a religious system that assumed the presence of superstition and magic, which had little in common with philosophical Taoism. And Lao Tzu himself was deified.

Confucianism - ritual control. Confucius, or Kung Tzu, i.e. “a teacher from the Kun clan” (551-479 BC) was born into the family of the third wife of a noble but impoverished military leader in the kingdom of Lu. When the future philosopher was only one and a half years old, his father died, and his mother, oppressed by older wives, was forced to return to her homeland in the city of Qufu, where the family lived in poverty. Thanks to hard work and diligent study, Confucius was appointed manager of the granaries, and only at the age of 50 was able to engage in government activities, holding the position of head of the court order. After leaving the service due to intrigues, for 13 years he traveled to other Chinese states, trying to convey his ideas to the rulers, who were engaged in internecine strife and plunged the people into the abyss of disaster and suffering. After returning home, he continued teaching, collecting and editing the literary heritage of the past, including the first weather chronicle in Chinese history, as well as the Book of Changes. Confucius' disciples wrote down his thoughts and teachings - composition "Lun Yu"("Conversations and Judgments").

Unlike Lao Tzu, Confucius was not interested in the irrational: "I'm not talking about the supernatural, about violence, about confusion and about spirits."

The main idea of ​​Confucius is fixing names"- under the influence of time, people and their relationships change, but at the same time old words are used, although the content of these names has already changed. Thus, a person is called a ruler, although he is no longer the same ruler as he was in the past; they call a person a son, although he no longer fully fulfills filial duties. The discrepancy between the old and new content of the names should be eliminated, the names should be "correct", which actually meant a call for a return to the past. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every person has his own function.

Confucius draws an image noble husband"(jun-tzu), contrasting him with a commoner. A noble man is afraid of three things: he is afraid of the command of heaven, of great men, and of the words of the wise.

Confucius named five virtues of a “noble husband”, cultivating which a person achieves harmony with the external and internal world. They are reflected in the form of five sacred hieroglyphs.

• Hieroglyph " Ren"(tree) - humanity, following it means leading with love, mercy, humanity and compassion for people.
• Hieroglyph "AND"(metal) - justice, following it means the principle of reciprocity, which balances humanity. So, you need to respect your parents in gratitude for the fact that they raised you.
• Hieroglyph " Zhi"(water) - common sense, following it means balancing justice, preventing stubbornness and stupidity.
• Hieroglyph "Lee"(fire) - a ritual, following it means observing the necessary ceremonies, rituals, dignity and self-respect - this allows people to better feel life itself, its spirit.
• Hieroglyph "Xin"(earth or heart) - sincerity, following it means balancing the ritual, preventing hypocrisy - the main Confucian virtue, without which everyone else will have no power.

« Short person"(xiao-zhen) does not know the command of heaven and is not afraid of it, he despises tall people occupying a high position and ignores the words of a wise person.

Management based on the rules of conduct is the central point of the ethical and political ideas of Confucius. The basis of order in the country is "whether"

(ritual, ceremonial, reverence). Lee includes rules of conduct, moral imperatives, respect and strict adherence to the division of social roles. The ritual is all-encompassing. Plays an important role devotion(zhong) - the idea of ​​obedience and reverence for the ruler, parents, older brothers younger. The importance of honoring parents is emphasized.

In Confucianism, much attention is paid to issues of political life and government. The relationship between the ruler and the people is likened to the relationship between a rider and a horse. The “horseman” is a ruler endowed with great wisdom, and the “horse” is a people incapable of independent actions. The ruler ruled the people with the help of "bridles" and "reins" - officials and laws. For the existence of a normal state and to maintain order in the state, a certain prosperity is first of all necessary. Confucius said that the people must first "make rich" and then "educate them."

Confucius pointed out the need to eliminate the four evils: cruelty, rudeness, robbery and greed. Actions opposite to these four types of evil are to enlighten the people, to warn them, to faithfully observe reasonable orders, to be generous.

Confucius spoke of the power and significance of the moral example of the superiors for the inferiors. "If the personal behavior of those (who are at the top) is right, things go on, although they do not give orders."

The views of Confucius had a strong influence on the subsequent spiritual culture and political practice of China.

Moism - good governance. The founder of the school - Mo-tzu, or Mo Di (c. 475-395 BC), who came from a family of small proprietors, was a countryman of Confucius. Having studied Confucianism, Mo-tzu became his opponent in a number of positions. In his opinion, people may not follow the wishes of heaven, there is no fateful predestination in people's lives, there is no fate.

Mo Tzu speaks of seven troubles in the state:

• 1) the squandering of the ruler, sometimes it comes to the point that there are no funds for the fortress wall, and at the same time palaces are being built;
• 2) lack of mutual assistance between individual possessions;
• 3) the impoverishment of commoners due to the extravagance of dignitaries;
• 4) the unrighteousness of the ruler's servants;
• 5) self-confidence of the ruler, lack of interest in the opinion of those close to him;
• 6) lack of devotion and trust between the ruler and servants;
• 7) lack of diligence on the part of servants and dignitaries, fear of punishment.

At the heart of all disasters is "mutual separation", in which different interests give rise to "mutual hatred". Mo-tzu proposed a program of relationships between people, contributing to the improvement of society. The central idea of ​​his teaching is the call to seek the establishment of relations between all people on the principles of "universal love and mutual benefit." This thesis of the Mohists, in contrast to the Confucian principles of dividing society into “common people” and “noble men”, “ruling” and “ruled”, was an attempt to provide a kind of ethical justification for the idea of ​​equality of people and reflected the desire to involve wide sections of the population in the political life of the state. .

Mo-tzu believed that in order to govern the state, it is necessary to "promote the wise" regardless of their social status. “Officers do not have permanent nobility; the people should not always remain in a low position. He believed that unrest in society arises from the absence of "universal love."

Fajia (legist school)- rule of law, was created Han Fei(c. 280-233 BC). The Legists rejected in principle a government based on ritual and tradition. Speaking against the Confucians, they ridiculed their reasoning about philanthropy, duty, justice, brotherly love, calling them a "game of words" and comparing them with the children's game of "preparing elegant dishes from the sand." In contrast to the rule based on ritual, the legists promoted the rule of law based on the virtues.

In the book Shang Yana"Shang jun shu" ("The Book of the Governor of the Shang Region" - a treatise of the 4th-3rd centuries), the need to rule on the basis of the law is justified by the fact that a person is naturally evil. The animal nature inherent in a person cannot be changed by education, but its manifestations can be prevented by strict laws, a system of punishments and rewards. Man must be treated as a vicious being. “Where (people are treated) as virtuous, misdeeds are hidden; in the same place where (people are treated) as vicious, crimes are severely punished ... If you control people as virtuous, then unrest is inevitable and the country will perish; if people are ruled as vicious, then an exemplary order is always established and the country reaches power.

Peace and order in the country can only be based on laws. Laws must be tough. Severe punishments are necessary to make people fear the law. Laws must be uniform, obligatory for all.

When selecting people for service, it is necessary to evaluate not their appearance, clothes or speech, but check them in the performance of duties. Legislation, a well-thought-out system of rewards and punishments, a system of mutual responsibility and universal surveillance were supposed to ensure the unity of the state and the strength of the power of the ruler. This concept played a big role in the creation of a single centralized state.

The philosophy of ancient China did not have any serious impact on the development of philosophy in Europe. However, it had a great impact on China's neighboring countries. Thus, Confucianism became one of the main ideological teachings in Japan, along with Shinto and Buddhism.

• The "Book of Changes" ("I-ching") is intended for divination, the purpose of which is to clarify whether human activity is contrary to the course of the world's accomplishment, or whether it is harmoniously included in the world, i.e. whether it brings him misfortune or happiness. The book contains 64 symbols (hexagrams), each of which expresses one or another life situation in time from the point of view of its gradual development. Each hexagram is accompanied by a set of phorisms, which should give advice to the fortuneteller.
• Confucius. Lun Yu. VII. 21/22.

The philosophy of Ancient China dates back to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The formation of philosophical ideas in China took place in difficult social conditions. Already in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. in the state of Shang-Yin (XVII-XII centuries BC), a slave-owning way of economy arises, the origin of the economy of Ancient China begins.

The labor of slaves, in which the captured prisoners were converted, was used in cattle breeding, in agriculture. In the XII century BC. e. As a result of the war, the state of Shan-Yin was defeated by the Zhou tribe, who founded their own dynasty, which lasted until the 3rd century BC. BC e.

In the era of Shang-Yin and in the initial period of the existence of the Jou dynasty, the religious-mythological worldview was dominant. One of distinguishing features Chinese myths are the zoomorphic nature of the gods and spirits acting in them.

The supreme deity was Shang-di - Ancestor and patron of the Chinese state. He obeyed both gods and spirits. Often the personified power of Heaven appeared in the image of Shang-di. According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, the impersonal but all-seeing Heaven controlled the entire course of events in the universe, and its high priest and only representative on earth was the emperor, who bore the title of the Son of Heaven.

The “first” feature of Chinese philosophy (rather mythology) was the cult of ancestors, which was based on the recognition of the influence of the spirits of the dead on the life and fate of descendants. The duty of the ancestors who became spirits included constant care for the descendants living on earth.

The “second” feature of ancient Chinese philosophy is the idea of ​​the world as an interaction of opposite principles: female yin and male - yang. In ancient times, when there was neither heaven nor earth, the Universe was a gloomy formless chaos. Two spirits were born in it - yin and yang, who were engaged in ordering the world. The yang spirit began to rule the sky, and the yin spirit - the earth. In the myths about the origin of the universe, there are very vague, timid beginnings of natural philosophy.

To understand Chinese philosophy, it is necessary to take into account that China is a world of right hemisphere culture, which is expressed in culture of ancient China

The world of visual images, musical melodies is stored in the right hemisphere, the centers of hypnosis, religious experiences are localized. In left hemispheric cultures, the speech center and the center of logical thinking are powerfully developed. In right hemispheric cultures, they hear and perceive sounds differently, it is very difficult for representatives of these cultures to express sounds literally, they perceive the world in specific, single images.

Philosophical thinking in China

Holism - The world and each individual is seen as a "single whole", more important than its constituent parts. Chinese holistic thinking focuses on such characteristics of the phenomenon as "structure - function", and not "substance - element". The idea of ​​the harmonious unity of man and the world is central to this thinking. Man and nature are considered not as subject and object opposing each other, but as a "holistic structure" in which body and spirit, somatic and mental are in harmonious unity.

Intuitiveness – in Chinese traditional philosophical thinking have great importance methods of knowledge similar to intuition. The basis of this is holism. The “One” cannot be analyzed with the help of concepts and reflected with the help of language. To understand the "single wholeness" - it is necessary to rely only on intuitive insight.

Symbolism- traditional Chinese philosophical thinking used images (xingxiang) as a tool of thinking.

Tiyan - knowledge of the principles of the macrocosm was carried out through a complex cognitive act , including cognition, emotional experience and volitional impulses. Cognition was combined with aesthetic sensation and the will to implement moral norms in practice. Moral consciousness played the leading role in this complex.

Philosophy - schools of ancient China

The beginning of a stormy ideological struggle between various philosophical and ethical schools of ancient China caused deep political upheavals in the 7th-3rd centuries. BC e.- the collapse of the ancient unified state and the strengthening of individual kingdoms, a sharp struggle between large kingdoms.

The Zhangguo period in the history of ancient China is often called the "golden age of Chinese philosophy." It was during this period that concepts and categories arose, which then became traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

At that time, there were 6 (six) main philosophical schools:

• Taoism: The universe is a source of harmony, so everything in the world, from plants to humans, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves the people alone. Thinkers: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Zhuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wenzi, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan
• Confucianism: The ruler and his officials must govern the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. Ethical rules, social norms, and regulation of the administration of a despotic centralized state were studied. Thinkers: Confucius, Zengzi, Zi Si, Yu Ruo, Zi-gao, Mengzi, Xunzi.
• moism: the meaning of the teaching was in the ideas of universal love and prosperity, everyone should care about mutual benefit. Representatives of Moism: Mo-Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang-tzu, Fu Dun.
• school of lawyers: dealt with problems of social theory and public administration. Representatives of the philosophical school: Ren Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, Han Feizi; they also include Shen Dao.
• school of names: inconsistency in the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Representatives of the school of names: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao-gun.
• school "Yin-Yang" (natural philosophers). Representatives of this school: Zi-wei, Zou Yan, Zhang Tsang.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION STATE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

CHITA STATE UNIVERSITY ChitGU

INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT

CHAIR OF STATE, MUNICIPAL MANAGEMENT AND POLICY

Abstract on discipline: Philosophy

On the topic of: Philosophy of Ancient China

Done: student

GMU groups 09-1

Krapivnaya E. O

Checked by: Anuchina N.A.

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

In the distant past, almost four thousand years ago, following the birth of the slave system, the history of the development of Chinese philosophy begins.

The philosophy and religion of ancient China is unique. It is no coincidence that philosophy and religion stand side by side, because the two main areas of philosophy of ancient China - Confucianism and Taoism are difficult to separate from religion.

The first teaching actively used linguistic, ethical, legal and ritual conventions. The second, on the contrary, preached liberation from the conventions imposed by society and the search for not linear, not abstract, but direct and immediate knowledge.

These are the two main directions of philosophy and at the same time, according to many prominent scientists, these are the two main faiths of China. Moreover, for a historically long period, Confucianism and Taoism have been the dominant faith in China. And in this sense, the philosophy of ancient China is unique.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is very specific. This is determined, first of all, by its subordination to political and moral practice. Issues of ethics, ritual, governing the country, building an ideal society were dominant in it. The coincidence with politics was not only problematic, but also, let's say, official. Many philosophers represented influential social forces and served as ministers, dignitaries, and ambassadors. "Knowledge - action - morality" - this chain in ancient China was one of the main lines of philosophizing.

Chinese philosophy, as well as Chinese culture as a whole, during the period of its origin and development was not significantly influenced by any other, non-Chinese, spiritual traditions. This is a completely independent philosophy, most different from the European one.

Despite the fact that man in China is identified with nature and the cosmos and does not stand out from society, he occupies a central place in Chinese philosophy.

Chapter 1

1.1 Features of the development of philosophy in China

The specificity of Chinese philosophy is directly related to its special role in the acute socio-political struggle that took place in numerous states of ancient China during the periods of "Spring and Autumn" and "Warring States". The development of social relations in China did not lead to a clear division of spheres of activity within the ruling classes. In China, a peculiar division of labor between politicians and philosophers was not clearly expressed, which led to the direct, immediate subordination of philosophy to political practice.

Philosophers, founders and distributors of various schools, itinerant Confucian preachers, who represented a very influential social order, often were ministers, dignitaries, ambassadors. This led to the fact that the issues of governance of the country, relations between different classes and social groups of the population in society, took a dominant place in Chinese philosophy and determined a purely practical approach to the life of society. Questions of social management, relations between different social groups - that's what mainly interested the philosophers of ancient China. Another feature of the development of Chinese philosophy is related to the fact that the natural-science observations of Chinese scientists did not find, with a few exceptions, a more or less adequate expression in philosophy, because. philosophers, as a rule, did not consider it necessary to turn to the materials of natural science.

Isolation of Chinese philosophy from concrete scientific knowledge narrowed her subject. The isolation of ancient Chinese philosophy from natural science and the lack of elaboration of questions of logic is one of the main reasons why the formation of the conceptual apparatus proceeded very slowly. For most Chinese philosophical schools, the method of logical analysis remained virtually unknown.

1.2 Formation of the Chinese philosophical school

In the VII-III centuries. BC. in the ideological life of ancient China, new phenomena appear that are qualitatively different from what the Chinese thought of the previous period knew and which was due to serious sociological changes. During this period, major economic and social changes took place in ancient China, due to the emergence of private ownership of land, the development of productive forces, the expansion of crafts, the use of new iron tools and tools in agriculture and industry, by improving the methods of tillage themselves.

Deep political upheavals - the collapse of the ancient unified state and the strengthening of individual kingdoms, the sharp struggle between large kingdoms for hegemony - were reflected in the stormy ideological struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical schools. This period is characterized by the flourishing of culture and philosophy. The hereditary nobility still clung to the religious ideas of "heaven" and "destiny", though modifying them somewhat in relation to the peculiarities of the struggle of that time. New social groups that were in opposition to the tribal aristocracy put forward their views, opposing belief in "heaven" or putting a completely different meaning into the concept of heavenly destiny. In these teachings, attempts were made to comprehend historical experience, to find the "ideal law" of governing the country, to develop new rules for the relationship between various social groups of the population, to determine the place of an individual, a country in the world, to determine the relationship of a person with nature, the state and other people.

The true flowering of ancient Chinese philosophy falls precisely on the period of the 6th-3rd centuries. BC, which is rightly called the golden age of Chinese philosophy. It was during this period that such works of philosophical and social thought appeared as "Tao de jing", "Lun-yu", "Mo tzu" and others. It was during this period that the formation of the Chinese philosophical school - Taoism, which then had a huge impact on the entire subsequent development of Chinese philosophy. It was during this period that those problems, those concepts and categories, which then become traditional for the entire subsequent history of Chinese philosophy, up to modern times, arise.

Chapter 2

2.1 Schools in Chinese philosophy

In 221 BC The Qin Dynasty came to power in China. The time of her reign was very short (until 207 BC), but significant, since during this time the unification of China took place again, and the formal imperial power was filled with real content. China was united by a single authority and during the reign of the next dynasty - the Han - up to 220 AD.

The century that preceded the Qin dynasty was a period of state and social decay, in which the dying tribal nobility and the growing oligarchy competed for power in the struggle for power. The tribal nobility sought to return to the previous order that had developed during the Zhou dynasty (1021-404 BC). The oligarchy, whose strength in society was based on the economic principles of ownership, demanded the necessity of a legal law (fa), according to which social relations would be regulated without discounts on origin.

Historians who have studied this epoch (the epoch of "warring states") define this flourishing of philosophy as the rivalry of a hundred schools. The Han historian Sima Tan (d. 110 B.C.) identifies six philosophies as follows:

1) school of yin and yang (yin yang jia);

2) school of Confucians, writers (zhu jia);

3) Moist school (mojia); .

4) school of names (min jia);

5) school of lawyers, legists (fa jia);

6) school of path and strength, Taoists (dao de jia, Dao jia)

In "Shi ji" ("Historical Notes") by Sima Qian (II-I centuries BC), the first classification of the philosophical schools of Ancient China is given. Later, at the turn of our era, the classification of schools was supplemented by four more "schools", which , however, with the exception of zajia, or the “school of eclecticists”, in fact, they have nothing to do with Chinese philosophy. Some schools are named according to their character social activities the founder of the school, others - by the name of the founder of the doctrine, others - according to the main principles of the concept of this doctrine.

At the same time, despite all the specifics of philosophy in ancient China, the relationship between philosophical schools ultimately boiled down to a struggle between two main tendencies - materialistic and idealistic, although, of course, this struggle cannot be imagined in its pure form.

In the early stages of development of Chinese philosophy. For example, even in the time of Confucius and Mo Tzu, the attitude of these thinkers to the main question of philosophy was not expressed directly. Questions about the essence of human consciousness, its relationship to nature, the material world have not been defined clearly enough. Often, the views of those philosophers whom we classify as materialists contained significant elements of religious, mystical ideas of the past, and, conversely, thinkers who generally occupied idealistic positions gave a materialistic interpretation to certain issues.

2.2 Philosophical, religious and ideological foundations of Confucianism

Philosophy in its "pure form" is very rare in history. A philosopher is usually also a psychologist, and a religious figure, and a politician, and a writer, but few others ... Confucianism is an amazing synthesis of philosophy, ethics and religion.

Confucius (in the literature is often referred to as Kung Fu-tzu - "teacher Kun" 551-479 BC) - an ancient Chinese philosopher, the founder of Confucianism, the largest teacher of his time.

The time when this thinker lived and worked is known as the time of upheavals in inner life countries. Fresh ideas and ideals were needed to bring the country out of the crisis. Confucius found such ideas and necessary moral authority in the semi-legendary images of past history. He criticized his century, opposing it to the past centuries, offered his own version of the perfect man - jun-tzu.

The ideal person, designed by the thinker Confucius, must have two fundamental characteristics: humanity (jen) and a sense of duty (yi). Humanity includes such qualities as modesty, justice, restraint, dignity, disinterestedness, love for people. In reality, this ideal of humanity is almost unattainable. A sense of duty is a moral obligation that a humane person imposes on himself. It is dictated by an inner conviction that one should act in this way and not otherwise. The concept of a sense of duty included such virtues as the desire for knowledge, the obligation to learn and comprehend the wisdom of ancestors. The undoubted merit of Confucius was that for the first time in the history of China he created a private school, through which he spread classes and literacy. About what it is educational institution was publicly available, the words of the philosopher testify: "I accept everyone for training. Whoever has a desire to learn and will bring a bunch of dried meat."

A perfect person with a set of the above properties is an honest and sincere person, straightforward and fearless, attentive in speech and careful in deeds. A true Jun Tzu is indifferent to food, wealth, material comforts. He devotes himself to the service of high ideals and the search for truth.

The source of our knowledge about the teachings of Confucius are the records of his conversations and statements made by students and followers, the book "Lun Yu". The philosopher was most interested in issues related to the mental and moral character of a person, the life of the state, the family and the principles of government.

Confucius' adherents and his followers were concerned with how to curb strife in society and bring the public and private lives of people into a state of harmony. They emphasized the fundamental importance of antiquity for the harmonious life of society: the rule of justice, the absence of internecine wars, riots, oppression by the majority of the minority, robbery, etc.

"The path of the golden mean" is the methodology of Confucius's reformism and one of the main links of his ideology. The main questions solved by Confucianism are: "How should people be managed? How should one behave in society?" The main theme in the thoughts of the Chinese sage was the theme of man and society. He built a fairly harmonious ethical-political doctrine for his time, which for a long time retained indisputable authority in China. Confucius developed a system of specific concepts and principles with which one can explain the world, and acting in accordance with them, ensure the proper order in it: "zhen" (philanthropy), "li" (respect), "xiao" (respect for parents) , "di" (respect for the elder brother), "zhong" fidelity to the ruler and master) and others.

The main among them is "zhen" - a kind of moral law, following which one can avoid hostility, greed, hatred, etc. Based on them, Confucius formulated a rule, later called the "golden rule of morality": "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." This maxim has taken its rightful place in philosophy, although it has been expressed in different ways.

The principle "jen" in the Confucian system correlated with another, no less important - "li", which denoted the norms of communication and expressed the practical implementation of the ethical law. This principle should be followed by people always and everywhere, starting with individual and family relations and ending with the state ones, thus introducing measure and order into their actions.

All the ethical requirements and attitudes of Confucius served to characterize a person who combined the high qualities of nobility, mercy and kindness to people with a high social status. The right way allowed to live in full harmony with oneself and the surrounding world, without opposing oneself to the order established by Heaven. This is the path (and ideal) of the "noble man", whom the sage opposed " little man", guided by personal gain and selfishness and violating generally accepted norms. But, since people are equal by nature and differ only in habits, Confucius shows the "little man" the path to self-improvement: one must strive to overcome oneself and return to "li" - decency, respectful and respectful attitude towards others.

Doctrine Chinese thinker imbued with the spirit of preserving traditions as the basis for the sustainability of society. In society, people should build relationships, as in a good family. Rulers should enjoy the trust of the people and educate them from their own experience. According to the principle of "zhenming" (correction of names), everyone should know their place in society: the sovereign is the sovereign, the subject is the subject, the father is the father, the son is the son. Then society will be harmonious and stable.

In the III century. BC. - II century. the teachings of Confucius received the status of state ideology and subsequently became the basis of a specific Chinese way of life, largely defining Chinese civilization.

It is not about the opposition of society to man that he speaks in his famous Sayings. He talks about what it means to be a human, a special being with a unique dignity and power that is embodied in it. Is it enough just to be born, then eat, drink, breathe? So do animals. Acquire a culture and through it create relationships, human relationships that are symbolic in nature, determined by tradition and based on respect and duty. This is where a person is born.

What is the secret of longevity and vitality of the Confucian teachings? It is explained by many factors. First, in creating the image of a noble person, and not in preaching humility and submission, lies, according to a number of researchers of Confucianism, the secret of attractiveness, longevity and spread of the teachings of Confucius, his deep influence on all aspects of the life of Chinese society. Other scholars see the mystery of the long-term preservation of the Confucian worldview and its such a profound influence on the lives of the Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, Vietnamese in the fact that he preached humanity, philanthropy, advocating peace and order.

Based on the doctrine of the perfect man, Confucius creates a model of an ideal socio-political structure. The highest goal of the social order is the welfare of the people. It is the good that comes first, and after it Confucius places the deity and only after that - the monarch. Another important component of the social order is strict obedience to elders, a respectful attitude towards them. The state is a big family, and the family is a small state.

The state must have a clear structure, where everyone has their own place: one obeys, the other controls. The criterion for belonging to the class of managers is not noble origin, but education. Every Chinese should strive to become a Confucian. The system of education and upbringing should be dedicated to this.

Of the other principles governing everyday life Chinese, it should be noted the principle of filial piety - (xiao) which specifies the requirement of veneration of ancestors. Every person striving for the ideal of jun-tzu is obliged to be a respectful son. The meaning of xiao is to serve parents according to the rules of the book "Li-Ching". The son is obliged to please his parents, to be ready for anything to ensure their health, food, shelter, etc.

Thanks to simple and understandable ideas, and also because of its pragmatism, Confucianism eventually became the state philosophy and religion of China.

Thus, the huge role that the practice of moral and mental self-improvement played in Confucianism logically followed from the fundamental provisions of this teaching, and its specific features: constant introspection, strict self-control, emphasis on streamlining mental activity, etc., were due to characteristic features Confucianism and were closely related to its fundamental principles.

The ideas of Confucius had a huge impact on the entire subsequent history of state thought. However, the fact remains. Confucius has been the most revered figure in China for many centuries. It is not surprising that a temple, or rather, a temple complex, was built on the site of Confucius's house. On all the gates of these temples there are tablets with the inscription: "Teacher and example of ten thousand generations, equal to Heaven and earth."

2.3 The role of Taoism in Chinese culture and the concept of "Tao"

At the end of the Chunqiu period, when Laozi lived, the main trend in the development of society was manifested in the fall of the slave system and the emergence of the feudal system. Face to face with the tremendous social changes that were taking place, Lao Tzu rejected with disgust the principle of “governance based on rules of conduct” that prevailed in the former slave society and lamented woefully: “Rules of conduct - they undermine loyalty and trust, lay the foundation for unrest.”

But in the general variety, one concept can be distinguished. The cultures of the north and south of China differed to the greatest extent from each other. If the north, which gave rise to Confucianism, is characterized by attention to ethical issues and ritual, the desire for a rational rethinking of the archaic foundations of civilization, then the element of mythopoetic thinking dominated in the south. The first gave him content, the second endowed him with form. Without the southern tradition, Taoism would not have become Taoism, without the northern one, it would not have been able to express itself in the language of great culture and book education.

Lao Tzu ("Old Teacher") - the ancient Chinese legendary founder of Taoism; according to legend, he was born in 604 BC. The followers of the "venerable teacher" set forth his main ideas in the book "Tao Te Ching" - "The Book of the Tao Way and the Good Power of Te", also called "The Way of Virtue".

The main distinguishing feature of the philosophy of Lao Tzu, which characterizes the followers of Taoism, is that Tao is considered as the source of the origin of everything that exists, as a universal law governing the world, on the basis of which an ideological system arose, the highest category of which is Tao.

In contrast to the ethical and political views of Confucius, Lao Tzu reflects on the universe, on the world's natural rhythm of events, using two basic concepts for this: "dao" and "te". If for the founder of Confucianism Tao is the way of human behavior, the way of China, then for the Taoists it is a universal worldview concept denoting the beginning, foundation and completion of all things, a certain all-encompassing law of being.

The hieroglyph Tao consists of two parts: show - head and zou - go, so the main meaning of this hieroglyph is the road that people walk on, but later this hieroglyph acquired a figurative meaning and began to mean regularity, law. Lao Tzu, accepting Tao as the highest category of his philosophy, gave it not only the meaning of a universal law, but also considers it as the source of the origin of the world. He thought. That Tao is "the root of heaven and earth", "the mother of all things", that Tao underlies the world. Lao Tzu said: "Tao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives birth to all beings", which is a characteristic of the process of origin of everything that exists from Tao.

If "tao" is some kind of spiritual essence, then "te" is rather its material embodiment, the manifestation of Tao in things and human behavior. Tao and de are inseparable: Tao not only generates things, but also constantly improves them. Tao has no certainty (therefore, it cannot be expressed in words), it is identical to emptiness (non-existence), but it is a giving birth emptiness, all the possibilities of the world are hidden in it.

Expressing deep dialectical ideas in this, albeit naive, form, the Taoists emphasized that the world is the continuous birth and death of everything, the emergence and return. Everything carries the Tao, which gives the world harmony and unity. And a person's life is predetermined: he must live and act in accordance with "naturalness", that is, without violating the law of Tao. Therefore, people should not strive for active action, interfere with the natural course of events, much less change it.

Let's go back to the comparison. According to Confucius, the main distinguishing feature"noble man" - vigorous activity, organized by the ceremonial rules "li", he seeks to remake himself. Lao Tzu professes the principle of "non-action" - "Wu wei", which means the rejection of any kind of activity: everyone should go their own way. However, such a position did not at all demonstrate detachment from the world, on the contrary, it expressed the organic inseparability of a person with the Universe on a single basis - Tao. To bring "Wu Wei" to life, one must remain impassive, maintain firmness of mind and calmness. Then behind the struggle of things one can see harmony, behind movement - peace, behind non-existence - being. Only one who is free from passions is able to penetrate Tao and even merge with it. The passion-lover sees only the final - de.

As we can see, the Confucian values ​​of the "noble husband" are opposed to the Taoist ideal of the perfectly wise - "shenzhen" - a person who does not strive for business. The principle of non-action, as the highest form of behavior, was also put in the basis of management: a wise ruler should not interfere in the social order, so as not to violate natural law. The ideal of public life was peace, not war, concessions to neighbors, not fight against them, wisdom, not violence and cruelty.

The historical limitations of the representatives of the Taoist school consisted in the fact that, by tradition, idealizing the past, they demanded a return to it. In addition, they preached the fatalistic theory of "non-doing", according to which people should blindly follow the Tao and not oppose it, otherwise their efforts may backfire. The most reasonable behavior is the desire for satisfaction in peace. Later Taoism, which resulted in a reactionary religious movement, developed precisely these negative aspects of the teachings of the Taoist school.

It is not difficult to notice a clear contradiction in the socio-ethical teaching of Lao Tzu. On the one hand, against social inequality and oppression in ancient Chinese society, criticism of the arbitrariness and cruelty of self-serving rulers; on the other - the denial of any struggle, fatalism, relying solely on the natural course of things. Seeing no way out of this situation, Lao Tzu preached the idea of ​​returning to the primitive communal way of life.

Thus, Lao Tzu's teaching has a contradictory dual character. His dialectical ideas about the variability of the world of things, about the mutual transition of opposites, and others are combined with a metaphysical understanding of the unity of everything that exists; the materialistic interpretation of the world of things as a natural process is abstract, contemplative, which served as the basis for the formation of the Taoist theory of "non-action"; his criticism of social evil was accompanied by a call for the revival of a historically exhausted way of life.

However, under the conditions of ancient China, the rational ideas of Lao Tzu played a positive role, serving as an initial platform for further development materialistic views and progressive sociological views of various directions.

Conclusion

Thus, the development of theoretical thinking and the formation of philosophy represent a long process, the prerequisites for which can be found already in the early stages of human society. The oldest philosophical systems that tried to find an answer to the question of the origin, essence of the world and the place of man in it had a long prehistory, but they appeared at a relatively advanced stage of class relations.

Already in the conditions of a tribal community, completely dependent on nature, a person began to influence the natural process, gaining experience and knowledge that affect his life. The world gradually becomes the subject of human activity.

The selection of a person from the surrounding world was accompanied by various magical rites, symbolizing his desire to unite with nature.

The development of human practical activity involves the improvement of his ability to foresee, based on the observation of a certain sequence of events and, thus, the comprehension of certain patterns of natural phenomena.

The most important moments influencing the course of this process include the need to explain and reproduce the results of cognition. The development of language, and, above all, the emergence of abstract concepts, is an important evidence of the formation of theoretical thinking and the formation of prerequisites for the emergence of general conclusions, and thus for philosophy.

The most important milestone in the development of human thinking was the invention of writing. It not only brought new possibilities for the transfer of knowledge, but also enriched the prerequisites for the development of knowledge itself.

The conditions for the progress of theoretical thinking, and within its framework the first manifestations of philosophical thinking, developed unevenly. Separate regions with different socio-economic conditions differed from each other. The development of philosophical thinking in the countries of the East did not follow a straight line. And although mutual influence is not excluded at some stages and in some areas, all three studied regions - the Middle East, India and China - represent independent, cultural integrity.

The Near East did not create in antiquity a philosophical tradition in the true sense of the word. However, it was an area where, unlike other regions of the world, sedentary farmers prevailed, and the development of socio-economic relations was very intensive. This dynamic development was matched by the accumulated amount of knowledge and experience.

They also influenced religious ideas, ideology and culture in general. All these different spheres of human mental activity appeared in the ancient Near Eastern civilizations as a whole.

Ancient and medieval Chinese philosophy cannot be separated from the development of the spiritual life of Chinese society as a whole. It developed independently, and only Buddhism significantly influenced it, but over the course of several centuries it was adapted to the local tradition and spiritual life. Chinese philosophy can be characterized as a whole, the development of which was determined by the ability to integrate various new external influences.

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The Chinese tradition, unlike the Indian one, is least of all connected with religion. The efforts of the Chinese, their abilities and work were focused on earthly life, on the desire to realize themselves in this world. Such features of Chinese culture as sobriety, rationalism, stability, high appreciation of life, love for a clear organization and order determined the specific features of ancient Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is, first of all, practical philosophy. It is addressed to the practice of today, to the earthly, and not to the other world life. Unlike the Indians, the Chinese were keenly interested in socio-political problems. At the center of the reflections of the philosophers of ancient China were the issues of government and ethics.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is naturalistic philosophy. Naturalism manifested itself, first of all, in the fact that traditional Chinese thought had an orientation towards the natural course of things. It lacked ideas of purely spiritual entities. This circumstance was also associated with the lack of development of formal logic in ancient China.

The beginning of ancient Chinese philosophy was laid by comments on one of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China - The Book of Changes (I Ching).

The ancient Chinese believed in an unbiased higher regulatory force - tian which establishes a sacred social order in accordance with the cosmic order of Heaven. To find out the desire of Heaven, what awaits a person in the future, the Chinese turned to soothsayers. The same in their predictions were guided trigrams which were built using two lines (solid and broken), symbolizing the duality of cosmic forces. The trigrams formed the basis of the Book of Changes. However, this book was used not only as practical guide by predictions. It laid the foundations of the doctrine, which was accepted by the ancient Chinese philosophers.

The dual cosmic forces "The Book of Changes" calls yang and yin: yang is indicated by a solid line (-), and yin is indicated by a broken line (- -). These concepts replaced such more ancient designations of the forces of the cosmos as heaven and earth, sun and moon, etc.

Jan - positive, masculine, active, bright, solid beginning. yin - negative, feminine, passive, dark, soft beginning. The Book of Changes describes yang and yin as forces that perpetuate the universe through an endless chain of transformations. The interaction of yang and yin is determined by the Tao. Dao (Higher Path) represents the natural order, the highest degree of organization of nature and at the same time the path that a person must go through in his life.

Those who have aligned their lives with the rhythms of the yin-yang Tao live happily ever after. Those who shied away from this doomed themselves to misfortune and premature death. Those who lived in harmony with nature accumulated a large amount qi – life force, which periodically fills the Universe. The accumulation of this force leads to an increase de - virtues. Not only a person could possess De, birds and animals, plants and stones could have it. For example, it was believed that the tortoise has a large amount of de and lives for a long time, and the pine tree is a repository of de and does not fade.

It has also been argued that de forms a link between the dead and the living. Representatives ruling class have a large supply of de, which they have inherited from their ancestors and which they will pass on to their descendants. After the death of a person, one of his soul - By- remains in the body until its decomposition, and the other - hun- rises to heaven and feeds on the sacrifices that are made by descendants so that the de of the ancestors does not decrease. At the same time, the descendants are guided whether (rituals, ceremonies), that is, established rules of conduct.

Ordinary people did not have an ancestor cult, so they had a small amount of de. Their behavior is guided by su (customs). The most important thing for them is not to violate the customs of the natural order, to maintain constant contact with the forces of nature. Su received expression in seasonal holidays, on which the spirits of the earth, mountains, rivers were appeased.

Many concepts from the Book of Changes have become common to all areas of traditional Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese philosophy during its heyday, in the VI-III centuries. BC, was represented by many schools competing with each other ( Confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, Mohism, natural philosophy school, school of names and etc.). In a later period, only two of these schools survived as independent schools - Taoism and Confucianism. At first new era Buddhism, which came from India, was added to them. As a result, the so-called "triad of teachings" was gradually formed, which has existed in China up to the present time.

The concept of Tao gave its name to the school Taoism. Moreover, the ancient Taoists themselves did not call their teaching that way. This name appeared later in

Lao Tzu (604-531 BC) is an ancient Chinese philosopher. His real name is Li Er. He was nicknamed the Elderly Baby (Lao Tzu), because, according to legend, his mother carried him in her womb for 81 years, and he was already born a wise old man. There is no reliable information about his life. It is believed that he served as an archivist at the Zhou court and met with Confucius. Leaving China forever, he left with the head of the frontier outpost an exposition of his teaching called " Tao Te Ching"("The Higher Path and its Good Power"). Lao Tzu is considered the founder of Taoism, which has become both a philosophical school and a religion.

historical writings to denote the philosophy of the Tao Way, the founder of which was Lao Tzu.

Lao Tzu understood Tao as the highest first principle and first cause of the world and called it "the mother of all things." He spoke of Tao as generating things and as "nourishing" them, designating the latter with the concept of "de" (good power). At the same time, Tao does not interfere with the natural course of things, giving them the opportunity to develop in a predetermined order. Lao Tzu expressed this idea as follows: "The Tao does nothing, but nothing is left undone."

Departure from Tao violates the original simplicity of the naturalness of being. Lao Tzu contrasted naturalness with an artificial human society. In his opinion, the labor activity of a person led him to a contradiction with the world, alienated him from nature. Inaction, the Taoist thinker put above action and preached the principle of "doing nothing" ("wu-wei") , following which always brings peace. People's commitment to knowledge and the creation of social institutions (families, states) interfere with the Tao and give rise to all sorts of misfortunes. Lao Tzu advocated a return to a golden age, when there was no arbitrary division into good and bad, since people lived in perfect harmony, did not interfere in the natural course of things, and did not know such concepts as good and evil.

The principle of "non-action" does not express passive inaction, but following the natural order of things, agreement with one's own inner nature and implies non-interference in the nature of everything that exists, refusal to remake, rebuild the world. This principle acts like water flowing over stones in its path. According to a prominent representative of Taoism Chuang Tzu(c. 369 - 286 BC), the wu-wei mind flows like water, reflects like a mirror, and repeats like an echo. The true way of human life is to fit into the world, and not to break the established order in it.

Thus, “non-action” aims at a sensitive, careful attitude to nature, which is especially important today, when violations of ecological cycles and balance in nature are obvious. Nature, according to Taoism, does not exist to be studied and remade, but to be experienced, to derive pleasure from communicating with it, to live in harmony with it.

Lao Tzu extended the wu-wei principle to the field of social phenomena, noting that when the government is active, people become unhappy. He considered such a ruler to be wise, who does not interfere in anything and allows everything to take its course, in a natural way. That's why "The best ruler is the one about whom the people know only that he exists."

In the natural unity of man with nature, the Taoists saw the guarantee of a serene and happy life. Solving the problem of how to live better, they developed the doctrine of zhi. Zhi (literally: "breath") is a special kind of energy that flows through each person. A person must free himself from everything that pollutes and weakens zhi, first of all, from vanity. The way in which one can experience zhi in oneself is through meditation, during which any thought of personal aspirations and emotions should be banished.

Some of the Taoists tried, completely immersed in contemplation, to achieve unity with the primitive forces of nature. Others preferred witchcraft and magic to meditation, as well as such elements of the yogi system as food restriction, physical and breathing exercises. Their goal was to achieve longevity and physical immortality. They conducted alchemical experiments on the invention of the elixir of life, were engaged in astrology and geomancy. As a result, the Taoists made a significant contribution to the development of science. Alchemy led to the invention of gunpowder, and geomancy led to the compass.

In the second half of the 11th century BC. troubled times came in China: the ruling Zhou dynasty (11th-3rd centuries BC) gradually degenerated, political changes followed one after another. In this period importance acquired the power of the military, and special attention was paid to the art of government. Many middle-class military men aspired to become government decision-makers in the courts of ancient Chinese princes. For 13 years, the "traveling officer" ("yu shi") was Confucius, who hoped to convince the rulers of the need to comply moral principles. But the ideas of Confucius were too moral to be accepted by the rulers of his time. Only a few centuries later they gained support from the rulers of the Han Dynasty. In the II century. BC. Confucianism became the official state ideology in China and played an exceptionally important role in Chinese culture and socio-political history.

Confucius (from Kung Fu Tzu, meaning "wise teacher Kung") is an ancient Chinese philosopher. Born in 551 BC. e. in an aristocratic but impoverished family. For a long time he worked in the royal book depository in Zhou, where, according to legend, he met and talked with Lao Tzu. Upon returning to his homeland, in the kingdom of Lu, he opened his own school and became the first professional teacher in the history of China. So P v. BC. he was revered as the Great Sage. The main source of information about the teachings of Confucius are "Lun Yu" ("Judgments and Conversations"), which are records of his statements and conversations made by his students and followers. In 1957, in the hometown of the philosopher Qufu, where his distant relatives still live, annual celebrations resumed in his temple.

Confucius shared the traditional view of heaven as higher power, ruling the world, and accepted faith in the spirits of ancestors. He considered the society of his day to be inconsistent with what was destined by Heaven for all things. He idealized the past and advocated the restoration of communal-patriarchal relations in which people understood morality. It is through moral norms, and not by natural forces, as the Taoists argued, that, in his opinion, society should be governed. Following morality, the principles of duty were decisive for Confucius. Therefore, Confucian philosophy is primarily a doctrine of morality.

All issues, including those related to public administration, daily engaged in agricultural, commercial and financial affairs, were considered by Confucius from an ethical standpoint. The basis of his teaching was the idea of ​​an ideal society that would correspond to ancient patterns. He saw his task in the revival of the principles of society that existed in ancient times, because at that time perfectly wise rulers who owned Tao reigned on earth. Under Tao, the philosopher understood the path of moral perfection and government based on ethical standards.

Confucius urged to revere the ancestors, to observe ancient customs and ceremonies, during which the emperor - the Son of Heaven - played the role of an intermediary between the infinity of the cosmos and the finiteness of earthly existence. In steady adherence to the customs of antiquity, Confucius saw a panacea for all troubles, and he considered himself the bearer of forgotten ancient wisdom.

In Confucianism, a whole system of complex rituals was developed for all occasions. How strict the Confucians followed the established order is evidenced by the saying that has come down to us about Confucius: "If the mat is uneven, the Master will not sit on it."

In an ideal society, the principle of moral perfection should be harmoniously combined with activities aimed at streamlining the state. “If there is virtue in the heart,” said Confucius, “then there will be beauty in the character. If there is beauty in the character, then there will be harmony in the house. If there is harmony in the house, then there will be order in the country. If there is order in the country, then there will be peace on earth.”

Confucius developed the concept noble husband (jun-tzu). noble husband, or an ideal person, - one who knows how to combine disinterestedness and sensitivity in personal life courtesy in public life. In his desires, he is not greedy and, unlike "little man" thinks not about profit, but about duty. A person is not born noble, but becomes noble through the cultivation of the highest moral qualities.

A noble husband should have jen and follow li in his behavior. The concepts of jen and li are the most important in the philosophy of Confucianism. Ren (literally: "philanthropy") - this is a law that determines the ethical relationships of people, gives a setting for love for people. It is formulated as follows: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." Subsequently, this rule in the history of philosophy was expressed in various ways and was called "golden rule of morality". The manifestations of jen are justice, fidelity, sincerity, mercy, etc.

Lee(ceremonial, ceremonies) means ethical and ritual decency and is a wide range of rules that regulate people's behavior in various life situations. Without "whether" social order and, consequently, the prosperity of the state is impossible. It is because of "li" that there are differences between the sovereign and subjects. A properly organized state, according to Confucius, consists of tops and bottoms: those who think and govern, and those who work and obey.

Confucius saw the main means of streamlining relations between members of society in the straightening (correction) of names, which was aimed at ensuring that everything in society remained unchanged. Names- these are the designations of the social, political and legal statuses of various persons in the hierarchical system of society and the state. Everyone must have a name corresponding to him, so that the sovereign is the sovereign, the dignitary is the dignitary, the father is the father, the son is the son, the subject is the subject. With all deviations from the norm, you should return to it. Thus, the meaning of Confucius's teachings about straightening names was that each person must correspond to his purpose, social status in the state hierarchy.

So, for each member of society, Confucius determined one or another place in the social hierarchy, in accordance with which it was necessary to act and conduct business. The criterion for dividing society into tops and bottoms should have been not noble origin and wealth, but abilities, virtues, knowledge and work. The philosopher was convinced that the economic prosperity and stability of both society and the individual depend to a large extent on hard daily work and on the strain of the abilities and efforts of every citizen.

Confucius considered the close-knit and well-organized family to be the basis of the state, and the state itself was understood by him as a big family. Therefore, a special place in his philosophy is occupied by the concept of xiao - filial respect, which determines the relationship between father and child, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, older friend and younger friend, ruler and subjects. essence xiao consists in the assertion that blind obedience to the will, word, desire of the elder is an elementary norm for the younger ones within the family and subjects within the state.

According to Confucian teachings, any person in Ancient China could count on social assistance and a minimum of social benefits, subject to strict observance of the ethical norms recognized in the state, maintaining order, honoring and obeying the authority of elders and subordination to rulers.

Confucianism shaped the way of life and social structure of the Chinese, and to this day it remains a living intellectual and spiritual tradition in China.

Control questions:

1. What are the features of ancient Indian philosophy?

2. What are the Vedas?

3. How do orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy differ from non-orthodox ones?

4. What are the main ideas of Vedanta?

5. What is the difference between Mimamsa and Vedanta?

6. What is the specificity of the Samkhya philosophical school?

7. How are the theory and practice of yoga related?

8. How does the philosophy of the Charvakas differ from the philosophy of all other ancient Indian philosophical schools?

9. What is "samsara", "karma", "nirvana" in the philosophy of Buddhism?

10. What is the content of the Four Noble Truths?

11. What are the characteristic features of ancient Chinese philosophy?

12. What is "Tao" in ancient Chinese philosophy?

13. What is the meaning of the Taoist principle of "non-doing"?

14. What is the essence of the philosophical teachings of Confucius?

15. What is the meaning of the Confucian straightening of names?

16. What is the xiao principle in Confucianism?

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Kanke V.A. Philosophy: A Historical and Systematic Course. M., 2001.

Kuznetsov V.G., Kuznetsova I.D., Momdzhyan K.Kh., Mironov V.V. Philosophy. M., 2009.

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Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. M., 2006.

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Vasiliev L.S. History of the Religions of the East. M., 1983.

Ancient Chinese Philosophy: Collection of Texts: In 2 vols. M., 1972.

Laws of Manu. M., 1960.

Lukyanov A.E. Lao Tzu (philosophy of early Taoism). M., 1991.

Lukyanov A.E. Formation of philosophy in the East. M., 1989.

Lysenko V.G. An Introduction to Buddhism: Early Buddhist Philosophy. M., 1994.

Nemirovskaya L.Z. Philosophy. M., 1996.

Oliver M. History of Philosophy. Minsk, 1999.

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Databases, information and reference and search systems:

Portal "Humanities Education" http://www.humanities.edu.ru/

Federal portal " Russian education» http://www.edu.ru/

Federal repository "Unified collection of digital educational resources» http://school-collection.edu.ru/

In the entire history of China, no one has been able to overshadow the glory of Confucius.

He was neither a discoverer nor an inventor, but every inhabitant of the planet knows his name thanks to his outstanding philosophical teachings.

From the biography of Confucius:

Little is known about this outstanding man, but this does not prevent us from considering that Confucius is an influential figure in the development of China.

Confucius (real name - Kong Qiu) is an ancient sage and philosopher of China. He was born around 551 BC. e. His mother, Yan Zhengzai, was a concubine and was only 17 years old at the time. Shuliang He's father was already 63 years old at that time, he was a descendant of Wei-tzu, the commander of the emperor. The boy was given the name Kong Qiu at birth. When the child was one and a half years old, the father died.

After the death of the father of little Confucius, there were heavy quarrels between the two wives and the young concubine, which forced the boy's mother to leave the house. After moving to the city of Qufu, Yan Zhengzai began to live by herself with her son. Confucius had a difficult childhood, from a young age he had to work. Yan Zhengzai's mother talked about his ancestors and their great activities. This was a huge incentive for the return of the great title that had been lost. Listening to the stories of his mother, about his father and his noble family, Confucius understood that in order to be worthy of his kind, it is necessary to engage in self-education.

To begin with, he studied the basis of the education system for young aristocrats - the six arts. In this he succeeded, and he was appointed to the position of an official manager of the barns, then - an official in charge of cattle. At about 19, he married and had two children.

He started his successful career at the age of 20. + At the same time, Confucius received recognition and created a whole doctrine - Confucianism, which was of great importance for the development of China. He became the founder of the first university and wrote the rules for all classes. He taught 4 disciplines: literature, language, politics and morality in his own private school, which accepted everyone who wanted independence from class and material wealth.

Around 528 BC, his mother dies, and according to tradition, he must leave government work for 3 years. During this period, Confucius was completely immersed in reflections to create an ideal state.

When Confucius was 44 years old, he took over as the seat of the principality of Lu. He was very active in his post, was an experienced and skillful politician. + Soon, great changes began in the country. The stable governments of dynasties were replaced by corrupt greedy officials, internecine strife began. Realizing his hopelessness, Confucius resigned and, together with his students, went to travel around China. At this time, he tried to convey his ideas to the governments of different provinces. Confucius began to preach philosophical doctrine together with his followers. His idea was to preach knowledge to the poor, the plowmen, the old and the young.

For his education, Confucius took a nominal fee, lived on funds allocated by wealthy students. He was engaged in teaching new students and systematizing the ancient books of Shi jin and I jin. The students themselves compiled the book of Lun Yu. It became the fundamental book of Confucianism, which contains brief statements, notes, and actions of their teacher.

At about the age of 60, he ended his wanderings, Confucius returns to his homeland, which he does not leave until his death. The rest of his life he works on his creations: "Books of Songs", "Books of Changes" and on many others. + Interestingly, according to scientists, he had about 3,000 students, but there are about 26 by name.

Although Confucianism is considered a religion, it has nothing to do with theology. It reflects the principles of creating a harmonious society. The basic rule that Confucius formulated is: "Do not do to a person what you do not want to yourself." + Confucius died in the 73rd year, before that he predicted his imminent death, which he told his students about. He died around 479, and there is an opinion that before that he just slept for 7 days. He was buried in a cemetery where his followers were supposed to be buried. + On the site of the house after his death, a temple was built, which was rebuilt more than once, increasing its area. The Confucius House has been under the protection of UNESCO since 1994. In China, it is customary to give the Confucius Prize for achievement in the field of education.

Of course, legends have partially been created around the life and biography of Confucius, but the fact of the influence of his teachings on future generations should not be underestimated.

He was one of the first who proposed the idea of ​​building a highly moral and harmonious society. His teaching found such a wide response among the people that it was accepted as an ideological norm at the state level, and it remained popular for almost 20 centuries. The lessons of Confucius are easy for everyone to understand, which is probably why they inspire people very effectively.

Confucius was an ordinary person, but his teachings are often called religion. Although questions of theology and theology as such are not important for Confucianism at all. All teaching is based on morality, ethics and vital principles of human interaction with humans.

25 interesting facts from the life of Confucius:

1. The family tree of Confucius with a history of approximately 2500 years is the longest in the world. To date, the tree covers 83 generations of the Confucius clan.

2. Confucius is also known by the names: "Great Sage", "The wisest departed teacher", "The first teacher" and "Forever exemplary teacher".

3. Qiu ("Qiū", literally "Hill") - the real name of Confucius, given to him at birth. The teacher's second name was Zhong-ni (仲尼 Zhòngní), meaning "Second of Clay".

4. Confucianism, founded by Confucius and developed by his followers, is one of the most widespread and most ancient teachings in China and throughout the world.

5. The laws issued by Confucius were based on his teachings and were so successful that crime in the kingdom of Lu came to naught.

6. Confucius believed that every citizen should respect and honor the ancestors.

7. At the age of 19, Confucius married a girl named Ki-koan-shi from the Qi family, who lived in the Song kingdom. A year later, they had a son, who was named Lee.

8. At the age of 50 (501 BC), Confucius took over as judge. The entire law and order of the kingdom of Lu was concentrated in his hands.

9. Based on the statements and conversations of the teacher, the students of Confucius compiled the book "Sy Shu" or "Tetrabook".

10. The "Golden Rule" of Confucius says: "Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself." He is also credited with the saying: "What you do not choose yourself, do not impose on others."

11. The name "Confucius" arose at the end of the 16th century in the writings of European missionaries, who thus conveyed the combination Kung Fu Tzu (Chinese 孔夫子, pinyin: Kǒngfūzǐ) in Latin (lat. Confucius), although the name is more often used 孔子 (Kǒngzǐ) with the same meaning "Master [from family/surname] Kun".

12. According to Confucius, a person must overcome himself, cultivating personality through morality and humanity, and destroy the barbarian and egoist in himself.

13. According to the Confucius Family Genealogy Committee, operating in Hong Kong and China, genealogical books listing the descendants of Confucius are considered the most voluminous in the world: they have 43,000 pages and include the names of more than 2 million people.

14. Confucius served as a judge for five years, but the intrigues of spiteful critics led to his resignation in 496 BC.

15. Confucius returned to teaching and in the next 12 years as a teacher won universal love and respect.

16. He believed that the elite of the country would be a positive example for the rest of the nation. Thus, peace and harmony will reign in society.

17. He attributed honesty, goodwill, humility, politeness and sanity to the most important human qualities. Confucius encouraged popular leaders to be exemplars of good manners.

18. Confucius taught students the ideas of the ancient Chinese sages, which he studied himself, in order to achieve reforms in the government, which at that time was mired in corruption and autocracy.

19. Confucius' mother died when he was 23. A year later (in 527 BC), Confucius changed careers and took up teaching.

20. When Confucius was one and a half years old, his father Shuliang He, a military officer, died. The boy grew up in poverty, but was able to get a good education.

21. At the age of 60, Confucius left his labor activity and returned to his small homeland. 12 years later, November 21, 479 BC. he died.

22. One of the most prominent disciples of Confucius and his spiritual heir is the Chinese philosopher Mengzi. The most favorite student of the thinker was Yan Hui.

23. Several tens of thousands of descendants of the "teacher of all Chinese" live outside of China in Korea (34 thousand) and Taiwan.

24. C early childhood Confucius had to work hard to provide for his family. Starting as a simple worker, he rose to the rank of an official responsible for issuing and receiving grain. Later, livestock also came into his charge.

25. Confucius (birth name Kong Qiu) was born in 551 BC. in the city of Zeou (now the city of Qufu in Shandong province), which belonged to the kingdom of Lu.

25 wisest quotes Confucius:

1. In fact, life is simple, but we persistently complicate it.

2.Three things never come back - time, word, opportunity. Therefore: do not waste time, choose words, do not miss the opportunity.

3. In ancient times, people studied in order to improve themselves. Today they study in order to surprise others.

4. A noble soul is serene. The low man is always preoccupied.

5. Not the one who has never fallen is great, but the one who has fallen and risen is great.

6. Incontinence in trifles will ruin a great cause.

7. If they spit in your back, then you are ahead.

8. Three paths lead to knowledge: the path of reflection is the noblest path, the path of imitation is the easiest path, and the path of experience is the most bitter path.

9. Happiness is when you are understood, great happiness is when you are loved, real happiness is when you love.

10. People in ancient times did not like to talk a lot. They considered it a shame for themselves not to keep up with their own words.

11.Gemstone cannot be polished without friction. Similarly, a person cannot become successful without a sufficient number of difficult attempts.

12. Choose a job you love and you won't have to work a day in your life.

13. Try to be at least a little kinder, and you will see that you will not be able to commit a bad deed.

14. You can curse the darkness all your life, or you can light a small candle.

15. Beauty is in everything, but not everyone can see it.

16. We accept advice in drops, but we distribute it in buckets.

17. In a country where there is order, be bold both in actions and in speeches. In a country where there is no order, be bold in action, but careful in speech.

18. Give instructions only to those who seek knowledge, having discovered their ignorance.

19. A noble person makes demands on himself, a low person makes demands on others.

20. Misfortune came - a man gave birth to him, happiness came - a man raised him.

21. I am not upset if people do not understand me - I am upset if I do not understand people.

22. Before taking revenge, dig two graves.

23. If you hate, then you have been defeated.

24. You can overcome bad habits only today, not tomorrow.

25. Only when the cold comes, it becomes clear that the pines and cypresses are the last to lose their dress.

Temple of Confucius

from Wikipedia, photo from the Internet