Psychiatrist, speech pathologist, neuropsychologist, Doctor of Psychology, Candidate of Medical Sciences, Vice President of the St. Petersburg Association of Speech Pathologists. Born in Leningrad in 1949. Graduated from the Leningrad Pediatric Medical Institute in 1972. After graduating from correspondence postgraduate studies in child psychiatry at the Department of Psychiatry of the LPMI in 1982, he defended his thesis on the topic: "Dyslexia, its clinical and psychological study in mental retardation and oligophrenia in children. For more than 10 years he worked as a psychiatrist, first in the Novgorod region, and then in the Leningrad region. In 1984-1985 he worked as an assistant at the Department of Psychopathology and Speech Therapy at the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute. A.I. Herzen. From 1985 until its closure in 1996, he worked as an assistant and then as an assistant professor at the Department of Child Psychiatry at the Faculty of Education and Science of the Leningrad Pediatric medical institute(now - St. Petersburg State Pediatric Medical Academy). Since 1996, he has become the scientific director of the NOU of Pedagogical Innovations and Technologies, " The educational center"Presto", combining this work with teaching at the Russian State Pedagogical University. A.I. Herzen, Academy of Postgraduate teacher education St. Petersburg, Moscow City Psychological and Pedagogical University. Research area: child psychiatry, childhood speech pathology, childhood neuropsychology and neurolinguistics, correctional psychology. Studying reading and writing disorders from clinical and psychological positions, he made a significant contribution to the disclosure of the mechanisms of dyslexia. He developed the only method in Russia so far for the early detection of dyslexia (MRD), published by the Ministry of Health of the USSR in 1982, and the first standardized method for diagnosing dyslexia in Russia (SMINCH). He developed the theory of complex medical-psychological-pedagogical overcoming of dyslexia, the author's method of its correction in schoolchildren and methods of prevention of dyslexia in preschoolers. These materials formed the basis of the book "Dyslexia and Dysgraphia in Children", published in 1995 and in subsequent revised and supplemented reprints in 1997 and 2003. Since 1983, A.N. Kornev has been studying the clinical, psychological and neurolinguistic mechanisms of underdevelopment of oral speech in children. The results obtained formed the basis of the book "Fundamentals of Childhood Logopathology: Clinical and Psychological Aspects" and made it possible to lay the foundations for a new scientific direction: "Children's Logopathology". This book has been recognized best job 2001, and its author A.N. Kornev became a laureate of the Prize of the Ministry of Science and Technology Russian Federation in the priority direction "Technologies of living systems". In 2006, the result of his research was his successfully defended dissertation on the topic: "System Analysis of the Mental Development of Children with Speech Underdevelopment." On the above topics, A.N. Kornev published more than 80 publications, including 8 books and teaching aids. The results of his work as the scientific director of the NOU "Training Center Presto" were the preschool educational program of the new generation "Personality" developed under his leadership, a complex of correctional and developmental programs for children younger and up to school age, the author's method of semi-global teaching of reading, the author's model of psychological and speech therapy support in preschool educational institutions. Since 1996, A.N. Kornev has been teaching at the Faculty of Clinical Psychology of the St. Petersburg State Medical Academy, and in 2007 he was elected to the position of professor at the Department of General and Applied Psychology of the same faculty.

FOREWORD

According to various sources, several tens of percent of children cannot master school skills due to the state of their neuropsychic health. At the same time, dyslexia becomes an obstacle to learning for 2-10% of students in a mass school and up to 50% of students in an auxiliary school. Using various approaches, researchers abroad were only able to partially reveal the pathogenesis of this condition and formulate some principles of diagnosis and correction. In our country, there are almost no works devoted specifically to dyslexia; the available ones reveal, as a rule, the pedagogical aspect of this disorder.

A. N. Kornev's monograph is the first book in our country devoted to the medical and psychological aspects of this problem. For the first time, he used a comprehensive approach to understand the mechanisms of dyslexia and dysgraphia, i.e., clinical, clinical-dynamic, electroencephalographic, neuropsychological and psychological research. This work is a continuation and development of the scientific direction, begun back in the 30s by the staff of the Leningrad Pediatric Institute (S. S. Mnukhin, E. D. Prokopova, D. N. Isaev), among whom is the author himself.

Thanks to high erudition, serious clinical training and extensive experience in neuropsychological research, A. N. Kornev managed to solve the problem of dyslexia in a new way. Previously unknown patterns of its formation were revealed, and a new concept of a multifactorial disorder model was formulated. In the course of a long-term and comprehensive study of children with the described disorder, the author has developed a versatile methodological approach to its diagnosis. He created original methods, adapted some of the existing ones, and, in general, formed a battery of samples that allow for an in-depth analysis of the genesis and accurate diagnosis of the disorders underlying dyslexia.

I would like to specifically emphasize the importance of the direction chosen by the author for the earliest detection of insufficient development of the prerequisites for mastering school skills. This book develops the theoretical foundations and formulates practical approaches to the early detection of dyslexia.

The author's achievement is the creation general principles curative pedagogy, psychotherapy and drug treatment, which allowed him to develop in detail the relevant practical recommendations. The proposed methods for preventing violations of written speech are original and unconventional. The social adaptation of children largely depends on school performance. Thus, A.N. Kornev largely solved one of the important tasks of mental hygiene - the protection of the mental health of the student.

All the above advantages of the book make it not only interesting, but also useful for children's doctors (psychiatrists, neuropathologists, dentists) and teachers of preschool and school institutions.

It seems that the publication of this monograph will not only fill a significant gap in one of the important areas of our knowledge about the mental health of the child, but will also become a significant event in child psychiatry.

Professor D. N. Isaev

INTRODUCTION

Difficulties in mastering certain school subjects are the most common cause of school maladjustment, sharp decline educational motivation, resulting difficulties in behavior, and sometimes even criminal behavior. Among them, reading and writing disorders are in the first place in terms of frequency.

A variety of neuropsychiatric disorders can cause impairments in the assimilation of written language. First of all, these are states of general mental underdevelopment, gross anomalies of the visual and auditory analyzers, underdevelopment of oral speech [Sukhareva GE, 1965; Kovalev V.V., 1979; Isaev D. N., 1982]. Persistent violations of written speech can occur in children with normal intelligence, intact oral speech, full vision and hearing, who have unformed certain private mental processes that may almost not manifest themselves in any way. Everyday life, but create serious obstacles in mastering writing or reading. The misfortune of such children lies in the fact that both parents and many teachers are completely unaware of this range of problems. Today, even school psychologists have very vague ideas about the nature of reading and writing failure, they do not know that there are conditions such as dyslexia and dysgraphia, in which children who do not receive timely help can remain semi-literate for life. This last, rather numerous, category of disorders will be the main subject of discussion in this book.

Psychological and pedagogical features of children with reading and writing disorders

A. N. Kornev

The state of successive functions in children with reading and writing disorders

Successive features

Of all the prerequisites for intelligence, violations of successive functions are perhaps more common than others in selective violations of school skills [Mnukhin S.S., 1968; Demyanov Yu. G., 1971]. Dyslexia is no exception. Violations of discrimination, memorization and reproduction of temporal sequences of stimuli, actions or symbols in specific reading disorders were found by S. S. Mnukhin (1984), D. Doehring (1968), S. Gantser (1979) and other researchers. Children at a low level perform tasks such as reproducing a sequence of movements, sound and graphic rhythms, make many mistakes when reproducing a sequence of images, find it difficult to reproduce a temporal sequence of verbal stimuli (words, numbers), but are capable of automating speech sequences (seasons, days weeks, months). There are different points of view on the modal specificity of these disorders. D. Bakker (1972) believes that in dyslexia successive operations suffer only on verbal material. W. Gaddes (1980) believes that insufficiency is polymodal.

Exploring this group of functions, we used the following tasks: a) “linear speaking” (seasons, days of the week in order); b) reproduction of sound rhythms of 3–6 beats at different intervals; c) the test "Fist - edge - palm" and a similar, but complicated (added movement of the legs) test.

Experiments have shown that children with dyslexia, as well as children with mental retardation, significantly lag behind healthy children in all of the listed tasks. Most often, they have a weakness in the automation of speech sequences (64% of cases), the reproduction of sound rhythms suffers less often (46%), and even less often there are difficulties in reproducing a series of movements (33%).

Reproduction of sound rhythms may be defective both due to the state of the auditory analyzer (at the stage of analysis of the presented sample), and due to the peculiarities of the functioning of motor systems (at the stage of reproduction). To clarify the cause of the identified difficulties, it is advisable to compare this task with other tests that affect these functions. The frequency of combining low results in the reproduction of rhythms with drawing up in the test "Fist - rib - palm" serves as an indirect indicator of the role of motor deficiency in the analyzed disorder. On the other hand, the presence of low results simultaneously in the “rhythms” and the “Repetition of numbers” subtest from AVM-WISC gives similar information in relation to the speech-auditory analyzer. The first type of combination occurs among our subjects in eight cases out of twenty-two (36%), the second - in eighteen cases (82%). The differences are significant (p< 0,002). Тот факт, что большинство детей, не справившихся с воспроизведением ритмов, одновременно проявляют несостоятельность при воспроизведении цифровых рядов, указывает на заинтересованность высших отделов слухового анализатора. По-видимому, именно слабость церебральных систем, обеспечивающих удержание в кратковременной памяти ритмически организованных серий звуковых сигналов, приводит к низким результатам при воспроизведении ритмов.

Deficiency of certain successive functions, according to our observations, occurs in 88% of children with dyslalia. To varying degrees, these disorders are manifested in the "dysphasic" and "dysgnosic" variants of the disorder. In the "dysphasic" subgroup, the reproduction of sound rhythms suffers more, and in the "dysgnosic" subgroup, weakness in the automation of speech sequences (seasons, days of the week) dominates.

Reading and writing disorders in children. SPb., 1997. S. 96–97.

R. I. Lalaeva

Dyslexia and affective disorders

With dyslexia, various affective disorders are often noted (M. Rudinesco, M. Trela, J. Aubry, V. Halgren, and others). At the same time, in relation to dyslexia, primary and secondary affective disorders are distinguished. In some cases, affective disorders, being primary, are considered as a factor causing dyslexia. In other cases, affective disorders occur in a child due to his failures in learning to read. If a child is seen as retarded and incapable, he begins to feel inferior. If he is accused of laziness and lack of will, he often becomes aggressive and undisciplined. M. Rudinesco and M. Trela ​​combine all affective reactions in dyslexia into three types:

1) feeling of inferiority;

2) a feeling of anxiety, fear, uncertainty;

3) negative reactions, accompanied by aggressiveness, anger, harshness.

J. Aubry identifies several different types of affective disorders in children with dyslexia:

Active negative reactions arise in the case when the child's admission to school is associated with something unpleasant, due to a change in the situation, environment, conflict with children, and the severity of the teacher. When negative reactions are observed only at school, one can look for the cause in a change in the situation in connection with admission to school. When the negative reaction extends to the family, it is necessary to look for its cause in the relationships that develop in the child in the family.

affective immaturity occurs when the child is not taught to be independent at home. Such children are infantile, they do not tolerate changes in the situation, they do not establish contacts with their peers at school. They seclude themselves, do not play with other children, keep themselves isolated, sometimes openly express their fear of school life and want to stay small.

Passive protest reactions occur in passive and lethargic children who act only under fear. They must be forced not only to work, but also to dress and eat.

V. Hallgren also finds behavioral disorders in some children with dyslexia. But the author does not find any connection between behavioral disorders and the occurrence of dyslexia. He considers behavioral disorders as a factor that accompanies the course of dyslexia.

The question naturally arises as to how affective disorders should be considered: as one of the etiopathogenetic factors or as a consequence of reading disorders.

Isolation of affective disorders as etiopathogenetic factors is insufficiently substantiated, since most often affective disorders are a consequence, not a cause, of dyslexia. In cases where reading failure occurs due to negative reactions of the child, pedagogical neglect, behavioral difficulties, reading errors will not be specific, repetitive, persistent, characteristic of dyslexia.

Therefore, there are currently different points of view on the origin of dyslexia. This speaks primarily of how complex the problem of the mechanisms of dyslexia is. However, analyzing all the above data, it is possible to draw certain conclusions. As etiopathogenetic factors of dyslexia in children, violations of those higher mental functions that carry out the reading process normally. In this regard, dyslexia can be caused by a violation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations, a violation of phonemic functions, and an underdevelopment of the lexical and grammatical side of speech. Therefore, reading disorders may be due to Firstly, underdevelopment of sensory-motor functions (agnostic-practical disorders). Thus, the underdevelopment of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations causes difficulties in the child in mastering the visual images of letters, difficulties in recognizing and distinguishing them (optical dyslexia). Secondly, reading disorders can be caused by underdevelopment of higher symbolic functions, underdevelopment of language generalizations: phonemic, lexical, grammatical (phonemic, semantic, agrammatic dyslexia). This group of reading disorders is the most common. Reading disorders in this case are one of the signs of impaired language development.

The origin of dyslexia is associated with the underdevelopment of many functional systems. In determining the form of dyslexia, the underdevelopment of the leading functional system in this case is of decisive importance.

Violation of the process of mastering reading. M., 1983. S. 27–28.

S. S. Mnukhin

About congenital alexia and agraphia

As a result of clinical observations and experimental psychological studies, most authors dealing with this issue come to the conclusion that congenital alexia and agraphia are an isolated defect in intellectually normal children (Warburg, Illing, Plate, Petzl, Mayer, etc.), likened by some to color blindness.

There have been attempts on the part of some English authors to consider this form as a partial manifestation mental retardation(Wolf, Engler).

Undoubtedly, disorders of this type occur in various degrees of retardation even noticeably more often than in normal children, but numerous observations have definitely established the presence of these disorders, often in a very gross form, in intellectually complete and even super-gifted children.

It must be said that, based on the study of our cases and the observations of other authors, it seems possible for us to establish, along with reading and writing disorders, a number of other disorders.

All our children could not list the months, days and weeks and the alphabet in order, although they knew these elements and reproduced them in a disorderly way.

It is certain that by prolonged exercise they are able to master these elements, just as it is certain that by prolonged exercise they are eventually able to learn to read and write. However, the fact that our children, with great difficulty and slowly, master the knowledge and ability to list these elements in order deserves attention, indicating the difficulty and slowdown in their processes of “row formation” and row speaking.

Further, our children, when offered them to repeat rows of 5 numbers or words, reproduced these last ones in full, but always not in the order in which they were asked. In this case, they usually made mistakes when they repeatedly repeated these series and even in cases of repeated repetition, memorization of these series by themselves.

These children were asked to hatch the sticks with rhythm III-IIII-IIII-II until saturation (according to the Carsten method from the laboratory of Kurt Lewin). Very revealing was the fact that two of them could not automate this rhythm and had to look all the time at the first line, which was shaded correctly; otherwise they did gross mistakes in rhythm.

Memorizing poems turned out to be a much more difficult process for our children than for control ones. Short quatrains had to be read to them 2–3 or more times; while normal children could reproduce these quatrains after a few days, all alexics could not reproduce them unmistakably the very next day. The reproduction of the same story, which did not require an exact transmission in order of what they read, they produced no worse than the normal children corresponding to them.

All these facts confirm the statement we made above about the slowness and difficulty of the process of “line formation and line speaking” among the Alexis. A phenomenon different from the processes of "series-contract" in its psychological essence is the ability to transfer months, days of the week, etc. in reverse order.

We will allow ourselves to give some more observations on our children, some of which are already known in the literature.

1. Our children, as a rule, were unable to count the number of letters in a word.

Mayer's statement is correct that they can more easily count the number of syllables in a word.

2. All of them are incapable of forming words from the letters given to them in a disorderly form, necessary for the formation of this word.

3. When one letter is omitted in a word (for example, “p-ro”) or when one letter is rearranged in it (for example, “tsalpya”), reading a word, even a very familiar and short one, becomes a difficult and insoluble task for them.

4. As reading and writing improves<…>relief was also noted in the resolution of these tasks.

Citing all these facts and, in particular, observations about the violation and difficulty in these cases of the processes of "line-speaking", it seems possible to us to establish the position that with congenital alexia and agraphia, which was considered a purely isolated defect, a number of other violations are detected upon careful examination; these additional disturbances, while not being an accidental phenomenon in alexia and agraphia, appear to arise on a psychopathological basis common with disorders of reading and writing.

What are the essence and psychopathological mechanisms of this defect?

We come to the conclusion that in congenital alexia and agraphia we are talking about a violation of the whole system of structure formation functions; more complex manifestations of this disorder are disorders of reading and writing, more elementary - disorders of "line speaking".

There is no doubt that the combination of these disorders in our and similar children is not accidental. We have already pointed out above the likelihood that both of these disorders arise on some common psychopathological and anatomical-physiological basis. It is not yet possible for us to consider any one of these violations as the cause of the other.

The vast majority of cases described in the literature are boys with various degrees and forms of hereditary burden: alcohol, psychopathic, epileptic, etc. Epileptic burden and mainly difficult childbirth, birth trauma are considered by many authors as the etiological moment of this defect. Numerous family cases of this disorder are described (Ginshelwood, Warburg, Bichman, etc.).

Data of pathoanatomical autopsies of these cases are not yet available; but on the basis of a frequent family manifestation, the gradual alignment of this defect under the influence.

Soviet neuropathology, psychiatry and psychohygiene. M., 1934.

N. V. Razzhivina

Peculiarities cognitive activity in younger students with dysgraphia

Writing impairment is a very common form of speech pathology in children of primary school age. Difficulties associated with mastering written language are often the cause of persistent underachievement, school maladaptation, and deviations in student behavior. Many works of domestic and foreign researchers are devoted to the problem of dysgraphia. However, the problem of correcting writing disorders in younger students is still relevant. It's connected, Firstly, with the insufficient effectiveness of traditional methods of dysgraphia correction, which do not always allow to completely overcome this disorder, but, Secondly, with an increase in the number of students suffering from dysgraphia.

Currently, writing disorders are considered in various aspects: clinical, psycholinguistic, neuropsychological, etc. However, the psychological aspect of the study of dysgraphia is the least studied.

We conducted a comprehensive study of the cognitive activity of younger schoolchildren, which included a study of oral and written speech, features of attention, memory, visual gnosis and mental operations. The study was conducted on the basis of secondary school No. 74 in Voronezh and took place in two stages.

On first stage A survey of the written language of all students of the 2nd grade was conducted in order to identify children with dysgraphia. A total of 107 schoolchildren enrolled in a four-year program were examined. elementary school. In the process of studying writing, written works in the Russian language in the workbooks and control notebooks of students were analyzed, and additional written work was carried out: cheating, dictation and a test to detect hidden violations of writing.

Schoolchildren without writing disorders showed high results in all written tasks, and children with dysgraphia could not successfully cope with any of the proposed tasks. In addition, the analysis of the results of the written work made it possible to identify a group of children who could not be attributed either to schoolchildren without writing impairments or to students with severe dysgraphia. Thus, all the children in this group showed high results when performing tasks such as cheating and dictation, but could not cope with the proposed test. In this regard, within the framework of this study, two subgroups of schoolchildren with writing impairment were identified: a subgroup of students with severe dysgraphia and a subgroup of children with latent (mild) dysgraphia.

An analysis of written works in the Russian language in the workbooks and control notebooks of schoolchildren, which was carried out during the school year, showed that such a division of students with writing disorders turned out to be justified. On the one hand, the mistakes made by schoolchildren in both subgroups were specific, persistent, and did not disappear without special corrective work. On the other hand, the manifestation of writing disorders in the subgroup with latent dysgraphia was qualitatively different from the similar manifestation in the subgroup with severe dysgraphia. Students with severe dysgraphia made specific mistakes in each written work, but their number directly depended on the degree of complexity of the work. Schoolchildren with latent dysgraphia made specific mistakes not in every work, while the number of mistakes did not depend on the degree of its difficulty. Thus, in this subgroup there was an uneven manifestation of dysgraphia.

In the subgroup with severe dysgraphia, "analysis-synthesis" errors and optical errors were most common. In the subgroup with latent dysgraphia, it was not possible to identify the predominance of one or another type of dysgraphic errors. Thus, among schoolchildren with latent dysgraphia, there were practically no agrammatisms in writing, and the ratio of all other types of specific errors in all types of written work turned out to be approximately the same. Children with severe dysgraphia rarely noticed and corrected their mistakes. At the same time, corrected dysgraphic errors prevailed among schoolchildren with latent dysgraphia in almost all written works. It was for students with latent dysgraphia that fluctuations in the choice of letters and numerous corrections were characteristic. On the whole, 50% of junior schoolchildren made specific mistakes in writing to one degree or another. At the same time, 21% of children had a pronounced writing disorder, and another 29% of students had a latent dysgraphia.

On second stage a study was conducted of the cognitive activity of 50 schoolchildren, randomly selected from the children examined at the first stage of the experiment. Of these, 44% of schoolchildren had a pronounced writing disorder, 30% of students had latent dysgraphia, and another 26% of children had no writing disorders. The experimental group consisted of children with severe and latent dysgraphia, the control group - children without writing disorders.

The examination of oral speech was carried out on the basis of a test method for diagnosing the oral speech of younger schoolchildren, developed by T. A. Fotekova based on the methods of R. I. Lalayeva and E. V. Maltseva. The use of this technique made it possible to obtain a quantitative assessment of the level of development of oral speech and the speech profile of each child, as well as the average speech profile in all the groups under consideration. In addition, a qualitative analysis of the state of oral speech in all surveyed schoolchildren was carried out. Analysis of the results of the survey of oral speech made it possible to make the following conclusions.

1. All children with severe writing impairment had some form of speech impairment. Moreover, the most severe speech disorders were diagnosed in this subgroup. So, 32% of students had OHP (3rd and 4th levels), 50% of schoolchildren were diagnosed with FFN, 9% of children were diagnosed with lexical and grammatical underdevelopment of speech, 9% of students had phonemic underdevelopment of speech. In 27% of cases, these disorders were combined with an erased form of pseudobulbar dysarthria.

2. Not a single child with latent dysgraphia was diagnosed with OHP, and only one student was diagnosed with lexical and grammatical underdevelopment of speech. The most common violation of oral speech in this subgroup was FFN, which was detected in 40% of schoolchildren, 20% of students had phonemic underdevelopment of speech, 20% of children had dyslalia, and 13% of schoolchildren had an erased form of pseudobulbar dysarthria. In 13% of cases, there were no violations of oral speech.

3. In the control group, dyslalia was detected in 46% of cases, and an erased form of pseudobulbar dysarthria was detected in 23% of cases. One child had neurosis-like stuttering, and 31% of schoolchildren had no oral speech disorders.

4. All students with OHP showed severe writing impairment. At the same time, schoolchildren with a speech impairment (FFN or phonemic underdevelopment) were noted to have writing impairments of varying severity (pronounced or latent dysgraphia).

5. Children with speech disorders of varying severity had the same severity of writing impairment. For example, schoolchildren with FFN or OHP were found to have severe writing impairment; students without speech impairment or with dyslalia had latent dysgraphia or no writing impairment.

Thus, all schoolchildren with OHP were diagnosed with severe writing impairment. Pupils with FFN were found to have different degrees of severity of writing disorders. Moreover, FFN turned out to be the most common diagnosis in both experimental subgroups. Schoolchildren with impaired sound pronunciation were noted to have latent dysgraphia or a violation of writing was not detected at all.

The study of cognitive processes included studies of productivity, stability, distribution, switching, concentration level, volume of auditory and visual attention; short-term and operational visual and auditory-verbal memory, mediated memorization; subject and letter gnosis; simultaneous and successive analysis and synthesis, operations of comparison, generalization and classification. In total, during the examination of each student, 46 different indicators were obtained, which reflected the level of formation of the studied mental processes.

A. Germakovska), overcoming amnestic phenomena (G. S. ... Logopathopsychology: educationalallowance Lalayeva, S. N. Shakhovskaya. - M. : ...

Bulletin of new arrivals (143)

Bulletin

735061 FRK: 735062 Logopathopsychology : educationalallowance for students / ed. R.I. Lalayeva, S. N. Shakhovskaya. - M. : ... , 733963 ChZ1: 733964 Logopathopsychology : educationalallowance for students / ed. R.I. Lalayeva, S. N. Shakhovskaya. - M. : ...

“3. Kornev A.N. Reading and writing disorders in children. - St. Petersburg: Speech, 2003. - 330 p. 4. Kuindzhi N.N. Functional readiness for school: ...»

K-PNU named after Ivan Ogіenko, faculty of correctional and social pedagogy and psychology

3. Kornev A.N. Reading and writing disorders in children. - St. Petersburg: Speech,

2003. - 330 p.

4. Kuindzhi N.N. Functional readiness for school:

retrospective and relevance // Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences. -

2009. - No. 5. - P.33 - 37.

5. Luria A.R. Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing // Letter and Speech:

Neurolinguistic Research. – M.: Ed. center

"Academy", 2002. - 352 p.

6. Trzhesoglava Z. Mild brain dysfunction in childhood. - M.: Medicine, 1986. -256 p.

7. Elkonin D.B. Development of oral and written speech of students // Reader on age and pedagogical psychology / Ed.

I.I. Ilyasova, V.Ya. Laudis. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow University, 1980 - 265 p.

The article examines the causes of difficulties and disorders when forming reading and writing skills of primary school children. Main biological and social factors engendering mentioned difficulties and disorders are also specified in the article.

Keywords: difficulties and disorders when forming reading and writing skills, primary school children, dysgraphia, dyslexia, dysorfographia.

Otrimano 25.2.2012 UDC 376.37 (075.8) S.A. Demidenko

IMPROVEMENT OF VOCABULARY OF EMOTIONS IN COB

CLASS OF SPECIAL LIGHTING SCHOOL FOR

CHILDREN WITH SEVERE INJURIES

READING LESSONS

The article shows the organization and results of the study of the vocabulary of emotions of young schoolchildren, which may damage the speech and direct correctional and pedagogical work for improvement. Showing the feasibility of victorious results in practice teaching Russian language classes for children with severe mental impairments.

© Demidenko S.A.

Correction of pedagogy and psychology Key words: vocabulary of emotions, advanced reading, learning from serious speech disorders, a special technique for learning language.

The article presents the organization and results of the study of the vocabulary of emotions of younger schoolchildren with speech disorders and the direction of correctional and pedagogical work on non-improvement. The possibilities of using the results of the study in the practice of teaching the Russian language to students are shown. primary school schools for children with severe speech disorders.

Key words: vocabulary of emotions, extracurricular reading, students with severe speech disorders, special methods of teaching the language.

At present, in the methodology of teaching the Russian language to children with severe speech disorders, the question of the effective combination of the logopedic approach and the possibilities of borrowing techniques, teaching methods, types of exercises, etc., which the method of teaching the Russian language of a mass school has, remains very relevant.

This issue was acute in front of a special methodology for teaching the Russian language back in the 80s of the XX century. K.V. Komarov, 1982, noted the fact that "speech therapy as a science lacks precisely those methods and techniques that the school process of developing and teaching language as a subject needs." Undoubtedly, speech therapy, as a dynamically developing science, constantly enriched with new theoretical and practical knowledge, has an impact on the content, techniques and methods of pedagogical work aimed at mastering the material on the subject "Russian language" by children with severe speech disorders (hereinafter referred to as TNR).

Using the example of updating the content of extracurricular reading lessons, we will demonstrate the unity of the "speech therapy" and "methodological" approaches in speech correction and mastering program knowledge and skills in the "Russian language" course for children with TNR.

Extracurricular reading - organized by the school, libraries, parents independent reading of books, magazines, newspapers, etc., not provided for by the program on the Russian language and literature. For the pedagogical guidance of extracurricular reading, special lessons are provided. The purpose of extracurricular reading lessons is to master the system of knowledge and skills defined by the program for teaching the Russian language to students with TNR, as the basis for the formation of reader independence. One of the most important requirements of the Russian language teaching program at school for children with TNR is to master the ability to understand the mood, feelings described in the K-PNU named after Ivan Ogіenko, the Faculty of Correctional and Social Pedagogy and Psychology, to assess the actions of the characters, to compare the actions of the heroes of the text with the actions of people in real life.

Such close attention to understanding the emotional component of texts is not accidental, since the greatest, particular difficulty in understanding and using in speech by children with SPD is the vocabulary that reflects the emotions and experiences of a person.

N.D. Krivovyazova notes that:

Children with TNR understand the nature of the characters, but the depth of their understanding is insufficient;

Not all character traits fall into the field of view, the most striking ones stand out;

The possibility of having different traits in one person is excluded.

Characters are classified only as "bad" or only "good".

Our studies of the state of the vocabulary of emotions of younger schoolchildren with speech disorders also stated similar difficulties in understanding and expressing emotions and pointed to the need to organize purposeful work to improve this type of abstract vocabulary.

The lexical system from the expressive and stylistic point of view is presented in the form of commonly used (stylistically neutral) and emotionally expressive vocabulary. In the scientific and methodological literature, there are different points of view on the process of development and formation of emotional-expressive vocabulary, on the classification of this vocabulary, ambiguity in understanding the place and role of emotional-expressive in the meaning of the word.

Emotionally expressive vocabulary is the most adequate means of expressing a person's personal, subjective attitude to the subject of the statement, and is also a means of expressing his personal feelings, emotional experiences. This vocabulary helps to carry out interpersonal communication, serves as a means of communication, most clearly expresses likes and dislikes. Vocabulary of emotions, being integral part lexical system of the Russian language, itself is a superparadigm, i.e.

paradigm system. The vocabulary of emotions is distinguished by the variety of expression of semantic relations and the variety of grammatical design.

Verbalization of emotional states forms emotional competence. The more freely a person orients himself in the world of emotions, the more shades of emotional states he knows and can express them verbally (verbally) and non-verbally (by gesture, facial expressions, posture), the more adequate his reaction to the correctional pedagogy and psychology of the phenomenon of reality will be, the higher will be its communicative culture, which in turn is a component of the personality culture.

In order to study the understanding of the vocabulary of emotions, we used 3 series of tasks. For the analysis of the results of the study, the levels of success in completing tasks were determined separately for three series (high, above average, medium, below average, low levels.

The first series uses the technique of an associative experiment in order to identify the level of organization of the semantic fields of words in the vocabulary of emotions.

The second series contains assignments for the selection of antonyms, synonyms, cognate words for the words of the vocabulary of emotions in order to determine "periphrastic possibilities" in using the vocabulary of emotions.

The third series is aimed at studying the possibilities of using the dictionary of emotions in students' coherent speech.

Students are asked to create:

Picture sentences using emotion vocabulary words

Stories based on presentations on given topics. Topics are defined according to different emotional content.

An analysis of the results obtained in three series of research tasks makes it possible to identify the features of the dictionary of emotional states of younger schoolchildren with speech disorders.

The vocabulary of emotions of younger schoolchildren with TNR is qualitatively and quantitatively incomplete. Most students in the active vocabulary of emotions do not have adjectives, participles and adverbs denoting emotional states. They use mainly nominative and predicative vocabulary.

The semantic field of the vocabulary of emotions is formed insufficiently, not perfectly. The few associative pairs obtained in the course of the experimental study are built mainly according to the type of syntagmatic connections. The answers contain random associations, which are common mainly in children aged 5-6 years.

There are errors in phonetic design, inaccurate semantic use of words in the vocabulary of emotions. In the speech of younger schoolchildren with TNR, the processes of word formation and inflection are disturbed, in general, and in emotional vocabulary, including (mistakes in the formation and use of cognate words). Students find it difficult to choose synonyms and antonyms for the words of the vocabulary of K-PNU named after Ivan Ogienko, Faculty of Correctional and Social Pedagogy and Psychology of Emotions. When forming antonyms, they do not use new words, but add a particle not.

Difficulties in using the words of the vocabulary of emotions in a coherent statement are typical: sentences with words of the vocabulary of emotions in speech are replaced by phrases; the words of the vocabulary of emotions are often used inadequately; in the story they allow a distortion of the meaning of emotionally-containing situations.

Younger schoolchildren with speech disorders in each of the three series of tasks demonstrated a level of success below the average, therefore, it is possible to determine the level of systemic organization of the vocabulary of emotions of younger schoolchildren with speech disorders as below average.

The results of the experimental study make it possible to designate the conditions necessary for the formation of a dictionary of emotional states of students with speech disorders:

1. The lag in mastering the dictionary of emotions cannot be overcome on its own; the formation of a dictionary of emotional states of students with SPD requires pedagogical guidance.

2. Improving the vocabulary of emotions involves the development of its consistency in various ways.

3. Work on the formation of a dictionary of emotional states of children with speech disorders should be carried out on the basis of the development of understanding of emotional states, the vocabulary of emotions and the modeling of emotionally containing situations.

We have developed and tested the content of correctional and pedagogical work to improve the vocabulary of emotions of younger schoolchildren with speech disorders.

In accordance with the goal - improving the vocabulary of emotions, taking into account the principles of the development of the systematic nature of the language, the basic principles of studying and correcting speech disorders (the system principle, the principle of accessibility, gradualness, the relationship of speech and other mental processes, activity, scientific approaches), general didactic and specific principles of teaching children with speech disorders, learning objectives are defined:

Clarification of the meanings of the words of the vocabulary of emotions that children have;

The development of lexical consistency according to various criteria:

semantic, derivational, grammatical:

Formation of syntagmatic connections (actualization of the words of the vocabulary of emotions in a coherent statement);

Development of communicative competence.

Correctional pedagogy and psychology

The selection of lexical material (words of the vocabulary of emotions) was carried out on the basis of: the scale of emotions by K. Izard (modified by S.I. Kalinin); alphabet of emotions presented by LG Babenko;

list of verbalized positive and negative emotions.

Lexical material (words, phrases, sentences, texts) - verbalization of emotions in 7 modalities (joy, interest, surprise, sadness, anger, fear, disgust).

The sequence of assimilation of lexical material is determined by the degree of complexity of understanding the emotional states of students with TNR, which we identified earlier, the least successfully understood emotions complete the learning process. The sequence of study: verbalization of emotions of joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, interest, surprise.

1. Improvement of lexical consistency according to word-formation models (enrichment of the vocabulary of emotions through the formation of related words of various parts of speech, semantization of words by word-formation).

2. Formation of lexical consistency on a semantic basis (classification of words on the basis of various semantic features - correlation of the meaning of a word with various lexical-semantic groups of emotive vocabulary, development of paradigmatic connections - development of antonymy, synonymy).

3. The development of syntagmatic connections - the use of words of the vocabulary of emotions in phrases and sentences.

4. Consolidation of the vocabulary of emotions in a coherent statement - text analysis, storytelling.

Analysis of the functioning of the vocabulary of emotions in a work of art - component general analysis artistic text according to the actual content.

The analysis of the functioning of the vocabulary of emotions in a literary text is carried out in three areas:

a. Emotive meanings in the structure of the character's image (dictal) are overturned into the real world of human emotions.

Their totality in the text is a kind of dynamic set that changes as the plot develops, reflecting inner world character in different circumstances, in relation to other characters.

b. Emotive meanings in the structure of the author's image. The author of K-PNU named after Ivan Ogіenko, faculty of correctional and social pedagogy and psychology reveals his sympathies, antipathies and other emotive-modus qualifications of the depicted world in conditions different types speech (both in monologue and dialogue), forming the expressive context of the work.

c. Emotive meanings induced in the mind of the reader by the content of the text. Psychological experiments aimed at studying the semantic perception of the text confirm that the reader perceives the text conceptually, in its semantic integrity (A.A. Brudny, R.I. Pavilenis, R. Titone). Emotive meanings are perceived holistically, primarily under the influence of the emotional tone of the text. The emotional tone of the text is perceived individually.

5. Actualization of the dictionary of emotions in a communication situation.

Let us present a summary of an extracurricular reading lesson, using the content of correctional and pedagogical work developed and tested by us in speech therapy classes to improve the vocabulary of emotions of students with speech disorders.

In our work, we were guided by the following principles for organizing extracurricular reading lessons:

Readiness of students for lessons;

The ultimate independence of schoolchildren in the lessons themselves;

The increased emotional background of the lesson, or, as A.K. Aksenov "festivity of lessons".

Theme of the lesson of extracurricular reading: Creativity L.N. Tolstoy - the story "Shark" Purpose: to form the interest of students with TNR in reading

Tasks:

Educational: to improve reading skills, practical skills in working with text (when reading, retelling, storytelling, students train in the ability to translate punctuation marks in accordance with their meaning into intonational design);

Correction-developing: enriching the vocabulary of students with the words of the vocabulary of emotions through the formation of the ability to find words in the text that characterize the hero, evaluate the actions of the characters, compare the actions of the heroes of the text with the actions of people in real life;

Educational: to form interest in the work of the classics of world fiction.

Equipment: books with a story by L.N. Tolstoy "Shark", illustrations for the story of different authors, multimedia equipment, slides for the lesson, children's drawings.

Corrective pedagogy and psychology Plan - summary of the lesson

1. Organizational moment.

Read the words on the board in unison:

“It is useful for everyone to read “to oneself” and aloud.

The book is the best, most faithful friend!"

2. Announcement of the topic of the lesson.

Teacher: Look at the illustrations for the book and tell me what kind of work of art will be discussed?

3. Preparatory work to reading the work.

Teacher: Now we will remember how we prepared for the lesson.

Children: We read the story of L.N. Tolstoy "Shark".

Teacher: What scary predator would you like to know more about? Did you manage to find interesting information about this sea monster? Who helped you? (children's answers).

Teacher: Listen, the guys from our class have prepared stories about the shark.

The teacher summarizes: In almost all the seas and oceans of our planet, there are terrible fish called sharks. These are the most ancient fish on Earth. Shark is a voracious and predatory fish. They follow the ships in a flock and wait for a person to fall into the sea, but if this does not happen, then with great pleasure they devour what people throw into the water. They swallow everything, even empty bottles cans and all rubbish. The white shark is the most dangerous, ferocious and strong of all sharks. It is called "white death". If you put her on the tail, then with the tip of her nose she will reach the fourth floor. Sharks have a special bag, something like a spare stomach, where food can be stored for a whole month and not spoil.

Scientists do not yet know how this happens. Shark teeth are large and very sharp. They are arranged in five rows, and in some species even in seven rows. If a shark breaks a tooth, another one grows in its place, and so six times throughout its life (according to the site www.festival.

Teacher: Why did Leo Tolstoy write maritime history what new we learned about the biography of the great Russian writer.

Children: We learned that L.N. Tolstoy participated in the defense of Sevastopol during Crimean War 1834-1835 He fought side by side with the sailors, during the calm period he heard many maritime stories from them.

Vocabulary work (words on the board): gunner, deck, anchor, sail, bath.

K-PNU named after Ivan Ogіenko, Faculty of Correctional and Social Pedagogy and Psychology Teacher: Once again, let's listen carefully to the story and answer the question: "Why did the boys get into a dangerous situation?"

4. Reading the story by the teacher.

5. Conversation on the actual content of the text using selective reading:

Answers to the teacher's question.

Dictionary work, clarifying the understanding of phrases: anchored, as if from a melted stove, they made a bath in the sail, race to swim, the open sea, a quiet murmur.

6. Analysis of the emotional context of the work.

Teacher: On the board the plan of the story:

1. Bathing.

2. Mortal danger.

3. Salvation.

Read the first part of the story, determine the mood that the author conveys?

Children: mood of peace, (peaceful, serene - on the board).

Teacher: We can call the mood of peace so peaceful, serene mood. (The teacher conducts the semantization of words according to the word-formation feature).

Children: beautiful day, fresh breeze, heated stove Teacher: Read the second part of the story. What is it called?

What feelings, emotions do you experience? How does the author convey it?

Children: fear, horror, impotence of others, compassion for the father. The author uses a lot exclamatory sentences: "Shark! Get back!

Come back!". Words and expressions: a sea monster, a piercing screech, froze with fear. The author describes the impotence of people in front of the monster as follows: "The sailors lowered the boat, rushed into it and, bending the oars, rushed with all their might to the boys; but they were still far away from them when the shark was no more than twenty paces away."

Teacher: What is the name of the third part of the story, why? Who saved the boys?

How have people's emotions changed? Like L.N. Tolstoy describes them. How do you understand "a quiet murmur, the murmur became stronger, a loud, joyful cry"?

Teacher, summarizing: What emotions and feelings does the work evoke?

Children: Compassion to the father, he almost lost his son.

Fear - when the shark chased the boys.

Joy - for the happy salvation of the boys.

Corrective Pedagogy and Psychology Analysis of emotive meanings in the structure of the image of the character - the artilleryman's father.

Teacher: Who main character works? How can we characterize the boy's father?

Children: We can call him a loving father.

Teacher: In what circumstances do these qualities manifest themselves? On what basis did you decide so?

Children: When the boys were swimming, the boy's father stood and admired his son.

Father, an artilleryman, is also a determined person.

The father fired his cannon at the shark as everyone stood frozen in terror. He made a decisive move. The father understood that he could hit the boys, but he made a difficult, only choice.

(Analysis of emotive meanings in the structure of the author's image).

Children: The old artilleryman admired his son.

He supported him with shouts: "Don't give out! Try hard!" The author describes the fear for the life of his son with the words “white as a sheet”, “the screech seemed to have awakened the artilleryman” (he was numb from fear for the life of the children), “the artilleryman fell near the cannon and covered his face with his hands”, only after he heard joyful cries he "opened his eyes, got up and looked at the sea."

Teacher: L.N. Tolstov, by the power of words, painted a portrait of the artilleryman's father. He is not young, laconic, stern, does not give vent to feelings, seems to be strict, with a military bearing, a person who makes difficult decisions, takes responsibility.

7. Generalization of the work.

Teacher: What does the story of L.N. Tolstoy? (Children's answers:

"The boys did not think about the danger that might lie in wait for them on the high seas and ended up in a very difficult situation", "The boy's father, saving his son, was forced to make a difficult decision - aiming at a shark, he could hit his son", etc. ) The teacher summarizes: Reckless, reckless actions can lead to trouble. We must think about the consequences of our actions, take care of ourselves and our relatives and friends, who are very worried about us and love us.

Have you ever done something that could lead to danger? How did the adults behave? How did the work of L.N. Tolstoy take a different look at some actions?

8. The result of the lesson. Tell us what feelings are reflected in the drawings that you drew for the story of L.N. Tolstoy "Shark".

K-PNU named after Ivan Ogіenko, Faculty of Correctional and Social Pedagogy and Psychology Thus, we believe that the inclusion of work to improve the vocabulary of emotions (tested by us in speech therapy classes) in extracurricular reading lessons contributes to the improvement of the system of school language teaching for children with severe speech disorders, which, by definition, K.V. Komarova "pursues the goal: by correcting, shaping and developing the speech of children, to ensure their assimilation of material on the subject "Russian language".

List of vicorists dzherel

1. Aksenova, A.K. Methods of teaching the Russian language in correctional school. – M.: Vlados, 2002. – 320 p.

2. Babenko, L.G. Russian emotive vocabulary as a functional system: 10.02.01: Abstract of the thesis. dis. for the competition scientist step. Dr. philologist.

Sciences / L.G. Babenko; Ural. state un-t im. A. M. Gorky. - Sverdlovsk, 1990. - 31 p.

3. Komarov, K.V. Methods of teaching the Russian language at school for children with severe speech disorders. - M., 1982. - 159 p.

4. Krivovyazova, N.D. Teaching Russian to children with severe speech disorders: textbook. allowance for students N.D. Krivovyazov. - Minsk: Zorny Verasen, 2007. - 215 p.

5. Lvov, M.R. Dictionary-reference book on the methodology of the Russian language. - M.: Enlightenment, 1988.- 240s.

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Specifics of reading and writing disorders in children of primary school age

Annotation. The article is devoted to the specifics of reading and writing disorders in children of primary school age. The authors considered the main forms of writing and reading disorders, specific errors, features of the manifestation of disorders. Key words: reading, writing, dyslexia, dysgraphia.

The problem of writing disorders in schoolchildren is one of the most relevant for school education, since writing and reading from the goal of primary education turns into a means of further gaining knowledge by students. The problem of teaching reading and writing was dealt with by many psychologists and teachers: B.G. Ananiev, R.F. Spirova, V.I. Gorodilov, L.I. Klimanov. The child needs to master the basic skills learning activities: writing, reading, mastering these skills contributes to successful schooling. Dyslexia was studied by various authors: A.N. Kornev, R.I. Lalaeva, R.E. Levina, I.N. Sadovnikova, M.E. Khvattsev etc.

M.E. Khvattsev defines dyslexia

as a partial disorder of the reading process, making it difficult to master this skill and leading to many errors during reading (omissions of letters, syllables, substitutions, permutations, omissions of prepositions, conjunctions, word substitutions, line omissions). The definition of dyslexia should indicate the main characteristics of reading errors that would distinguish them from other reading disorders. In dyslexia, mistakes are repeated, reading difficulties are manifested in substitutions, omissions and permutations. Errors are persistent and continue for a long time. Thus, dyslexia is defined not by a few, often random, reading errors, but by their combination and persistent nature. Existing errors in reading children do not always prove existing dyslexia. Errors can occur due to violations of the behavior of children, fatigue, pedagogically neglected. Mistakes in such children are not stable in nature, and are not based on the unformed mental processes. In the definition of R.I. Lalayeva said that dyslexia is a partial disorder of the process of mastering reading, manifested in numerous repeated errors of a persistent nature, due to the unformed mental functions involved in the process of mastering reading.

The symptoms of dyslexia are different and depend on the nature of the disorders. S. Borel Maisonny, M.E. Khvattsev, when determining the symptoms of dyslexia, directly identify reading disorders. The motor and spatial disturbances that accompany dyslexia are pathogenic. K. Lonay, M. Kuts determined that reading disorders are not isolated disorders, but depend on existing disorders in oral speech, motor skills, visual, auditory analyzer. With dyslexia, the pace of reading of the child is slowed down, a large number of various errors occur. Children with dyslexia will have difficulty learning letters, rearrangements may occur, the child does not synthesize words, jumps from one line to another, does not understand the meaning of what is read. The global perception of the word in dyslexia is possible, but it remains undivided and erroneous. In severe dyslexia, the child fails to read three letters and begins to use guessing reading. R.E. Levina refers to the typical manifestations of dyslexia the following errors when reading: inserting additional sounds, skipping letters, replacing one word with another, errors in the pronunciation of letters, repetition, addition, omissions of words. R.E. Levina distinguishes the following main types of manifestations of dyslexia: insufficient assimilation of letters, insufficient fusion of letters into syllables, incorrect reading of words, phrases. A.N. Kornev distinguishes two types: incorrect recognition of letters and incorrect combination of letters in a word. According to the manifestation, two forms of dyslexia are distinguished: literal, manifested in the inability or difficulty in learning letters, and verbal, which manifests itself in the difficulties of reading words. S. Borel Maisonny, O.A. Tokareva offer classifications of dyslexia depending on their pathogenesis. S. Borel Mesonni divides dyslexia into groups: 1. Dyslexia associated with impaired oral speech.2. Dyslexia associated with poor spatial representations.3. Mixed cases.4. False dyslexia. Children of the first group have insufficient auditory memory and there are violations of auditory perception. It is very difficult for such children to establish a connection between auditory and visual in oral speech, there are many errors. Children of the second group have disturbances in the perception of shape, size, location in space, definition of the top, bottom, right, left side, in severe cases, violations of kinesthetic memory, inability to imagine unusual positions of the arms and legs in space, violations of the body scheme, there are dyspraxia. the third group of children have visual and auditory perception disorders, as well as motor lag. With a mixed form of dyslexia, children build phrases poorly, select words for a long time, mix right-left, and poorly distinguish figures in shape and size. Their movements are often awkward, synkinesis, sluggish reactions are observed. In the fourth group of dyslexia, children who have neither speech disorders nor underdevelopment of spatial representations. However, these children did not learn to read well for various reasons. Authors R.I. Lalaeva, L.V. Benediktova distinguish phonemic, optical, opto-spatial, semantic and mnestic dyslexia. They believe that children have only phonemic and optical dyslexia. Other forms occur with organic lesions of the brain, with aphasia. With this phonemic form, children cannot learn to read for a long time, it is difficult for them to learn letters, they cannot convert them into syllables and words. Akhutina T.V. identifies types of reading disorders: 1) congenital verbal blindness, 2) dyslexia, 3) bradylexia, 4) legasthenia, 5) congenital weakness in reading. By definition, R.I. Lalayeva: dysgraphia is a partial violation of the writing process, manifested in persistent, repetitive errors due to the lack of formation of higher mental functions involved in the writing process. According to A.N. Korneva: dysgraphia is a persistent inability to master writing skills according to the rules of graphics. R. I. Lalaeva identifies the following features of dysgraphia: errors in dysgraphia are persistent and specific, numerous, repetitive and persist for a long time. Types of dysgraphic errors: distorted spelling of letters; replacement of letters; permutations, omissions, perseverations; separate spelling of a word, continuous spelling of words, agrammatisms. Errors in the letter correlate with one or another type of dysgraphia. Thus, articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition is characterized by errors in the form of substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds, substitutions of vowels, errors in designating the softness of consonants in writing. With dysgraphia caused by violations of analysis and synthesis, there will be omissions of consonants during their confluence, omissions of vowels, rearrangements and additions of letters, continuous spelling, breaks in words. Agrammatic dysgraphia manifests itself in distortions of the morphological structure of words (incorrect spelling of prefixes, suffixes, case endings, change in the number of nouns), as well as violations of the syntactic design of speech. The optical form of dysgraphia is characterized by errors in the form of substitutions of graphically similar letters, mirror spelling of letters, omissions of elements of letters and their incorrect arrangement. I.N. Sadovnikova identifies three groups of errors in dysgraphia. So, errors at the level of letters and syllables can be due to:

unformed actions of sound analysis of words (omission, rearrangement, insertion of letters or syllables);

difficulties in differentiating phonemes;

similarity in writing letters;

distortion of the phonemic perception of words. A.N. Kornev highlights errors in dysgraphia: errors in sound-letter symbolization; errors in graphical modeling of the phonemic structure of a word; errors in graphic marking of the syntactic structure of the sentence. Selected by I.N. Sadovnikova's cause of dysgraphia: due to harmful effects or hereditary predisposition; violations of oral speech of organic origin; delay in the child's awareness of the body schema. Dysgraphia can be a consequence of a violation of the perception of space and time, as well as the analysis and reproduction of spatial and temporal sequences. Affective disorders can provoke its appearance. Psychological and pedagogical features of the manifestation of dysgraphia in younger schoolchildren were studied by T.V. Akhutina, L.S. Vygotsky, R.I. Lalaeva, A.N. Kornev, A.R. Luria, V.I. Laudis, I.P. Negure, L.S. Tsvetkova and others. The writing process consists of five psychophysical components: acoustic (the child needs to hear and highlight the sound), articulation (clarify the sound), visual (representation of the graphic image of the sound), retention of graphic symbols in the memory. When writing, it is necessary to carry out a phonemic analysis of the word , match the phoneme with the letter and write the letters in a certain sequence.

Thus, the impairment of dyslexia is not a problem, but its social consequences can be quite serious. The child may be ridiculed in class, or may develop a hatred for letters and numbers. The presence of dyslexia affects the child's academic performance, peer ridicule may occur and can cause social consequences in the child's life. Low performance leads to disruption in the formation of working capacity and disruption in the formation of self-control aggravates the symptoms of dysgraphia, causing a particularly large number of errors in the work of children.

Links to sources1. Lalaeva R.I. Methods of psycholinguistic research of oral speech disorders in children. M., 2004.2. Kornev A.N. Reading and writing disorders in children: Educational manual. SPb.: mime, 1997. 286 p.3. Akhutina T.V. “L.S. Vygotsky and A.R. Luria: the formation of neuropsychology "// Questions of Psychology, 19 96 No. 5