Verifiable morphological spellings of prefixes and roots. Basic principles of spelling. Are there other spelling principles
Task 14
|
The majority of the population of our country uses obscene words in their vocabulary. Did you know that words can affect people's health? |
|
Read the text carefully and answer the questions: |
|
Conclusion: |
|
Arguments: |
|
2. |
|
"Our children use foul language, we ourselves are almost gone," the popular song says. The point is whether or not it is necessary to fight with obscenities. In my opinion, even if we fiercely resist obscenities, prohibit it, we will very soon understand that such a struggle is futile, and here's why. In society, there is always opposition from the "high society" to the middle class and "lower classes". The confrontation between the “top” and the bottom ”. So, if the middle class does not shun some habits borrowed from the lower classes, then the upper class will never accept linguistic permissiveness and moral emptiness as a consequence of it, as it will not “blow your nose”, but will always use a handkerchief. A man differs from an animal in that he obeys a set of moral codes that have existed in society for many centuries and do not depend on the wishes of individual people. It is very easy to destroy this cultural layer, on which the society actually rests. But in order to create a culture, it takes hundreds of years, if not millennia. Let's talk about the medical aspect of the problem. Most people, using mat in their speech, "for a bunch of words", are unaware of the existence of such an aspect. And the essence is as follows. Science has already established that with the help of verbal thought images we can create or destroy our genetic structure, that is, with the help of words, we influence at the genetic level not only the interlocutor, but also ourselves. This is the basis, for example, of the therapeutic method of T.N. Sytin, which became widespread. This can also explain the healing effect of popular conspiracies against all sorts of sores, when the disease passes after some old woman, in whom you believe as a folk healer, whispers something, bending over you. Human DNA “hears” speech and reacts to it. Some words heal the body, for example, prayer, others destroy it. At the genetic level !. Moreover, our verbal permissiveness and licentiousness affect the health of our children and grandchildren, since the information recorded on DNA is always inherited by our descendants. Indirect proof of this is the tenfold increase in Russia over the past twenty years in the number of children with developmental disabilities, both physical and mental. This statistic strikes not in the eyebrow, but in the eye. |
1.5. Phraseology.
Exercise 1. Compose phraseological units using words for reference.
Unexplained, indelible, grated, seven-mile, round, deaf; dull, rattle, while away, whirl, gawk.
For reference: eyes, trail, nonsense, steps, fool, head, gaze, kalach, black grouse, time, weapons.
Purpose: to summarize and systematize the spelling skills and abilities of students; improve teaching and language skills and abilities; expand and deepen the subject competence of students; to educate a conscious attitude towards language as a cultural phenomenon, the main means of communication and obtaining knowledge in various spheres of human activity. Equipment: textbook, educational texts.
Write down the words, inserting the missing letters, in three columns: a) words with unstressed vowels to be checked (indicate test words); b) words with alternating vowels (underline them); c) words with unverifiable vowels (put one related word in brackets).
Proclaim .. shaat, bl..stalny, bl..sleep, about .. active, inheritance, suppose .. suppose, suppose .. live, tradition, unification .. touched, blessed, blessed, tv..rets, transformed ..- rite, approved..r, enlightened..given, leaned..nut, b..gryany, pl..significant, ungodly ... , k..conflict, och..love, lazy..vivshi, ezhd..wreath, imprint..young, shed..vka, pl..vets, k..barstvo, burning..warying, addiction. , r .. growing, vyr .. sshy, vysk..chka, on sk..ku, sk..chok, ar..mat, b .. to stay, vym..kshi, av..ngard, gob tit, uv..danie, r..uniform, ur..balanced, r..vesnik, int..ll..genetic, eg .. femininity.
3.working with textbook exercises (at the teacher's choice)
Modern Russian spelling is based on certain principles. To understand the principle of spelling means to see its system and perceive each of its individual rules as part of the system, to understand the spelling rule and each spelling in the interrelationships of grammar, etymology, history of the language. In the theory of Russian spelling, morphological, phonetic, traditional principles are indicated, as well as differentiating spellings.
The morphological principle of spelling assumes a uniform, identical spelling of morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, end, regardless of phonetic changes in the sounding word that occur during the formation of related words or word forms, that is, regardless of positional alternations, other traditional inconsistencies in writing and pronunciation. These inconsistencies include: all cases of unstressed vowels in different morphemes - root, prefix, suffix, ending, stunning voiced consonants and voicing of the deaf before paired voiceless and voiced consonants, stunning at the absolute end of a word; orthoepic, traditional pronunciation of many words and combinations.
Checking spellings written by morphological characteristics includes: firstly: understanding the meaning the word or phrase being checked, without which it is impossible to find a related test word, determine the case form, proper name, etc .; Secondly: analysismorphological composition of the word, the ability to determine the place of the spelling, which is important for the choice and application of the rule; third: phonetic analysis, definitions syllable composition, stressed and unstressed syllables, highlighting vowels and consonants, understanding the weak and strong positions of phonemes, positional alternations and their causes; fourthly, grammatical analysis words (phrases) - the definition of a part of speech, a word form, for example: a noun, first declension, stands in d.p., singular, etc.
The leading position of the morphological principle of Russian spelling determines the method of teaching spelling: the latter is based on a conscious, analytical approach to the language, on the understanding of the meanings of words and their combinations, text, grammatical categories and forms, phonemic composition of the word.
The morphological principle corresponds to the following spelling topics studied in primary school: spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants, unpronounceable consonants, except for unverifiable words that are written according to a different principle; spelling of unstressed vowels, voiced and voiceless consonants in prefixes and suffixes, at the junctions of morphemes (except for certain cases, for example, prefixes in "-з", which are written according to a different principle, this case is not studied in primary grades); spelling of unstressed vowels in the endings of word forms: in case endings 1st, 2nd and 3rd declensions of nouns, in the case endings of adjectives, in the personal endings of the 1st and 2nd conjugations of the present and future tense; hyphenation of words from line to line, since not only syllabic, but also morphemic division of words is observed during hyphenation; to a certain extent, the morphological principle is also valid in fused-separate spellings of words, in particular, in distinguishing prefixes and prepositions, as well as in the use of "b" after prefixes, since the application of the corresponding rules requires morphemic analysis of words and the determination of their morphological characteristics.
Even such spelling topics as the designation of the softness of consonants in writing, the use of capital letters in names, double consonants, also rely on the morphological knowledge and skills of children.
So, the morphological principle is the main principle of Russian spelling. As mentioned above, its essence lies in the fact that all significant parts of the word (roots, prefixes, suffixes, inflections), repeated in different words and forms, are always written in the same way, regardless of how they are pronounced in one position or another.
Thus, the morphological principle is based on:
- 1) writing testable unstressed vowels and voiced final consonants in the roots of words: sa d [sa t], gardens [s dy], s adov od , move [ho t];
- 2) spelling of prefixes, excluding prefixes in z-: n aboutplay [pyhrat], prop atsteal [missed], entry [zhot].
- 3) spelling of unstressed endings of nouns: in the city [in - proud], over the table [nt - stlom];
- 4) spelling of the suffix -ok: wide [shyrok], low [low];
- 5) spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants: sad [grusn], local [m esnyj];
- 6) spelling of assimilated consonants: carry [n and s t and], grass [trafk].
- 7) writing AND after prefixes on a solid consonant and the first root starting with -И- in a compound-abbreviated word: pedagogical institute [p'dyns t and tu t], disinformation [dzynf rmatsyj].
The unity of the orthographic appearance of morphemes is achieved by the fact that the writing does not indicate pronunciation in one case or another, but the phonemic composition of the morpheme, formed by strong phonemes. Therefore, the main principle of Russian spelling can also be called phonetic, meaning by this the principle of transferring the phonemic composition of a morpheme in writing.
Deviations from the basic principle of Russian spelling are phonetic and traditional historical principles.
Let's consider the phonetic principle further. It is assumed that initially arising in different nations sound-letter writing has always been phonetic: each sound of speech was recorded as it sounds, as the writer hears it. And in modern Russian writing there are many such spellings where there are no discrepancies between sound and writing: "moon"; "Chair", "we", "cancer" and many others. In most words, along with checked or unchecked spelling, the rest of the sounds are designated by letters, in essence, according to the phonetic principle. So, in the word "carriage" the sound [a] is unstressed, it is considered unchecked, the letter -a is written according to tradition, but the rest of the letters of this word are written in accordance with the sound. In essence, all these spellings should be called not phonetic, but phonetic-graphic.
Phonetic-graphical spellings do not cause difficulties for writing, therefore, they are usually simply not noticed; but in primary grades, their role is very important. Phonetic-graphic spellings do not contradict the morphological principle of Russian spelling, since they do not lead to unequal spelling of morphemes.But their danger is that they still create an illusion of well-being in students, the illusion of correspondence of a letter to a sound, which in fact does not always happen.
Cases such as "table", "hand", "lamp" (phonetic spellings) reflect the phonemic composition of these words and do not oppose the morphological principle of spelling. So, the phonetic principle of Russian spelling is that sounds are written in words as they are heard, i.e. the spelling conveys the sound of the word.
Based on the phonetic principle:
- 1) writing prefixes on z-: without-, voz-, them-, from-, times-, through-, through- So, in front of the root, which begins with a voiceless consonant, the letter s is written, and in other cases z is preserved: classless, harmless, notify, drink, fall;
- 2) spelling of the struck vowels: house, forest, garden;
- 3) the spelling of vowels in the prefixes ra-, ras-, ros-, ros-: under stress, O is heard and O is written; in an unstressed position, A is heard and A is written: search - search, list - receipt;
- 4) spelling Y instead of the initial I, at the root after the prefixes for a strong consonant: to play, but to play, to search, but to find, history, but prehistory;
- 5) spelling under the stress O and in the unstressed position E in the endings of nouns, adjectives and adverbs after sibilants: soul, but porridge, big, but red, hot, fresh, but melodious, brighter;
- 6) spelling under the stress -ОЙ, in the unstressed position -ОЙ in the endings of adjectives, participles and ordinal numbers: big, but new, eighth, but fifth;
- 7) spelling Y after C: lisitsyn, sinitsyn, sestritsyn;
- 8) writing b after soft L: salt, coal, strong.
In the system of spelling rules, there are those that rely on the phonetic principle and are in sharp contradiction with the leading, morphological principle. The contradiction lies in the fact that morphemes (in this case, the prefixes na-z) are written not uniformly, but depending on the pronunciation, reflecting positional alternation. The prefixes iz-, is-, ra-, ra-, vz-, vs-, across-, over- and others do not obey the morphological principle. According to the rule, these prefixes are written with the letter З before vowels or voiced consonants, and in other cases - with the letter С: "unnamed, but" infinite ". It is easy to see that the spelling З- (С- in this example corresponds to pronunciation, i.e. it is subject to the phonetic principle.
Rules based on the phonetic principle and contradicting the morphological one cause difficulties for students, destroy the ideas about the spelling system that have just begun to form in them, contradict the general principle of checking vowels and consonants in weak positions.
Since the rules based on the phonetic principle contradict the understanding of the Russian spelling system that is being formed in children and, in general, are difficult to learn, then in the course primary school they are not being studied. But the words containing such spelling, younger students meet in written speech and write them, assimilating on a practical basis by memorization.
It can be emphasized that cases similar to the spelling of prefixes in -з- are few: other principles of spelling, in general, do not contradict, but, on the contrary, support the morphological principle of Prussian spelling. This is the third principle - traditional (historical). According to this principle, many words are written according to tradition, without being checked by rules.
Words that are not checked by the rules are very numerous: in the text characteristic of the written speech of primary schoolchildren, their number reaches 20% (many of such words later, in high school, will become testable for students). For the most part, these are words borrowed from other languages. Many of them entered the Russian language relatively recently: "bath" - German, "suitcase" - Persian, others in ancient times: "watermelon", "balyk", "sheepskin" - Turkic. and etc.
Many of the traditional spellings can actually be verified based on the source language: "cardboard" - from Latin; "Suit" - from French, etc.
Sometimes a spelling considered traditional can be checked on the basis of knowledge of the history of the etymology of words and historical changes in the phonetics of the Russian language: "rooster" - from the old Russian "petit", "pea" - contains full accord -oro-, in which there is no - ...
The traditional historical principle is based on:
- 1) writing G in genus, singular. adjectives, participles, impersonal pronouns, ordinal masculine and neuter: young (pronounced - in), fifth (pronounced - in). The writing of Г has survived from those distant eras when these forms were pronounced with [г] .;
- 2) according to tradition, the letter I is written after the hissing Ж and Ш. These consonants were soft in the Old Russian language, so after them it was natural to write I, E, Yo, Yu, I, as you hear, but by the 13th century. these consonants have hardened, but the spelling And continues according to tradition, although the consonants are pronounced firmly and Y is heard, not I: live, sew;
- 3) by tradition, b is written in the endings of the present and future tense verbs in 2 l. singular: you read, play;
- 4) by tradition it is written, but the spelling with unverifiable unstressed vowels is in no way explained: potter, blockhead, ship, dog, station;
- 5) suffixes -enk, -tel, -ochk, -echk, -enn, -ovat, -evat.
So, traditional-historical spellings are those spellings that do not depend on morphemes or pronunciation, but the writing is preserved according to tradition.
Within the framework of the traditional principle, which generally does not contradict the general rules of Russian writing and the leading principle of Russian orthography - morphological, there are several cases that contradict the general system.
The traditional spelling of combinations ZhI, SHI, with the letter "i", CHA, SHA, with the letter "a", CHU, SHU with the letter "y" contradicts general rule Russian spelling, according to which after hard consonants one should write not “and”, but “s”, after soft ones - not “y”, “a”, but “u”, “I”.
In the primary grades, the spelling of these combinations is memorized without any explanation, and, of course, cannot but damage the formation of the concept of the spelling system in the minds of students.
The morphological principle is contradicted by the traditional spelling of individual words: "kalach" (according to the morphological principle, one should write "kolach").
If morphological spellings are checked and learned on the basis of phonetic, derivational and grammatical analysis of words and their combinations, then traditional spellings are mainly based on memorization, in the order of the so-called vocabulary and spelling work. Memorization in primary grades plays an important role, it cannot be neglected, on the contrary, you need to develop a deep system of motivation, play techniques that make it easier for children to memorize words with difficult spellings.
With the development of phonology, with the introduction of the concept of a phoneme into scientific use, a new, phonemic principle was proposed, which some linguistic scholars define as the basic principle of Russian spelling. But, as mentioned above, the leading role in spell checking belongs to the morphological approach: you need to know if the spelling is in the root, suffix, prefix or ending. And without a morphological approach, the phonemic method of testing is blind and is applicable only in the simplest, obvious cases of the type "water" - "water" or "meadow" - "meadows".
It is impossible to check the spelling of the words [r shot], [long], [shyt] and many other spelling, if you do not resort to morphological analysis. The morphological principle explains all these cases; in other words, the morphological principle is wider than the phonemic one; it covers a much larger number of orthograms than the phonetic one. Majority authors teaching aids for universities, morphological and phonemic principles are considered in close connection, but not equal, since the phonetic principle is part of the morphological one.
The principles of Russian spelling are considered very complex, however, against the background of comparison with other European languages, where there are a lot of traditional, conventional spellings, the spelling of the Russian language as a whole is quite logical, you just need to understand what it is based on.
This article tells about the morphological principle of Russian spelling, examples of the implementation of which are most of the words of our language.
What is morphology
Understanding what the morphological principle of Russian spelling is, examples of which are already given in the first grade of elementary school, is impossible without the concept of morphology as such. What is morphology? In what areas of knowledge is it customary to talk about it?
The application of the concept of morphology is much broader than the linguistic field, that is, the field of language study. The easiest way to explain what it is is using the example of biology, where, in fact, this term came from. Morphology studies the structure of an organism, its constituent parts and the role of each part in the life of the organism as a whole. For example, the internal morphology of a person is anatomy.
Thus, morphology in the linguistic sense of the word studies the anatomy of a word, its structure, that is, what parts it consists of, why these parts can be distinguished and why they exist. The "constituent parts" of a person are the heart, liver, lungs; flower - petals, pistil, stamens; and words are prefix, root, suffix and ending. These are the "organs" of the word, which are in complex interaction with each other and perform their functions. The topic "Morphemics and word formation" at school is aimed precisely at studying these component parts words, laws of their connection.
Preliminary answering the question about the main principle of our spelling, we can say that we write down the constituent parts of a word (morpheme) as elements of the letter, this is the morphological principle of Russian spelling. Examples (to begin with, the simplest): in the word "balls" we write I, as we write down, we transfer the root "ball" without changes, as we hear it in the word "ball".
Are there other spelling principles?
To understand what the essence of the morphological principle of Russian spelling is, it must be considered against the background of other principles.
Let's clarify what spelling, or spelling, is. These are the rules that govern the writing of a particular language. The basic principle that underlies these rules is by no means always morphological. Besides him, first of all it is necessary to talk about phonetic and traditional principles.
Recording sounds
For example, you can write down a word as it is heard, that is, record sounds. In this case, we would write the word "oak" as follows: "dup". This principle of writing words (when nothing is important except the sound of the word and the transmission of this sound) is called phonetic. Children who have just learned to write follow it: they write down what they hear and say. In this case, the uniformity of any prefix, root, suffix or ending may be violated.
Phonetic principle in Russian
There are not many examples of phonetic spelling. It affects, first of all, the rules for writing the prefix (without- (without-)). In those cases when we hear the sound C at its end (before the voiceless consonants), we record this very sound (carefree, uncompromising, shameless), and in those cases when we hear Z (before voiced consonants and sonorants), we write it down (uncomplaining, carefree, loafer).
Traditional principle
Another important principle is traditional, it is also called historical. It lies in the fact that a certain spelling of a word can only be explained by tradition, or habit. Once upon a time, a word was pronounced, and therefore, it was written in a certain way. Time has passed, the language has changed, its sound has changed, however, according to tradition, the word still continues to be written that way. In Russian, this, for example, concerns the spelling of the well-known "zhi" and "shi". Once upon a time in Russian these combinations were pronounced precisely "softly", then this pronunciation was gone, but the tradition of writing was preserved. Another example of traditional spelling is the loss of connection between a word and its "test" words. This will be discussed below.
Cons of the traditional way of writing words
There are quite a lot of such "evidence" of the past in the Russian language, but if we compare, for example, with the English language, then it will not seem to be the main one. IN english language most of the spellings are explained precisely by tradition, since no reforms have been carried out in it for an extremely long time. That is why English-speaking students are forced not so much to understand the rules of spelling words as to learn the spellings themselves. Only tradition, for example, can explain why only the first two letters are “voiced” in the word “high”, and the next two are written simply “out of habit”, denoting zero sounds in the word.
Widespread use of the traditional principle in the Russian language
As mentioned above, the spelling of the Russian language follows not only the morphological principle, but also the phonetic and traditional one, from which it is quite difficult to get away completely. Most often we come across the traditional or historical principle of Russian spelling when we write down the so-called dictionary words. These are words that can only be explained historically. For example, why do we write "ink" with E? Or "linen" through E? The fact is that historically these words are associated with the names of colors - black and white, since at first the ink was only black, and the linen was only white. Then the connection of these words with those from which they were formed was lost, but we continue to write them that way. There are some words, the origin of which cannot be explained with the help of modern words, but their spelling is strictly regulated. For example: cow, dog. The same applies to foreign words: their spelling is governed by the words of another language. These and similar words just need to be learned.
Another example is the spelling of qi / tsi. Only by convention can one explain why I is written in the roots of words after Ts (except for some surnames, for example, Antsyferov, and the words tsyts, chicks, chicken, gypsy), and in the endings - Ы. After all, the syllables are pronounced in both cases exactly the same and are subject to no verification.
There is no obvious logic when writing words with traditional spelling, and, you see, they are much harder to learn than "checked" words. After all, it is always easier to remember what has an obvious explanation.
Why exactly the morphological principle?
The role of the morphological principle in spelling is difficult to overestimate, because it regulates the laws of writing, makes it predictable, eliminates the need to memorize an infinite number of words in traditional writing and "guessing" spellings in phonetic writing. Indeed, in the final analysis, the correct writing of words is not a simple whim of linguists. This is what provides an easy understanding of the text, the ability to read any word "from the sheet". The children's spelling "vyhadnyi myzbabushkai hadili nyolku" makes reading the text difficult and slow. If we imagine that each time the words will be spelled differently, this will primarily affect the reader, his speed of reading the text and the quality of its perception, since all efforts will be directed to “deciphering” the words.
Perhaps for a language that is less rich in word forms (that is, less rich in morphemes) and has less derivational capabilities (the formation of words in Russian is very easy and free, according to a variety of models and using the most different ways), this principle would be suitable, but not for a Russian. If we add to this a rich cultural discourse, that is, the complexity and subtlety of the thoughts that our language is called upon to express, then a primitive phonetic notation is completely unacceptable.
The essence of the morphological principle of the Russian language. Examples of
So, having considered the background of the existence of the morphological principle and having found out what morphology is, let us return to its essence. It's very simple. When we write a word, we choose not sounds or words as elements of the recording, but parts of words, its constituent elements (prefixes, roots, suffixes, postfixes and inflections). That is, writing down a word, we build it, as from cubes, not from but from more complex, meaningful formations - morphemes. And "transfer", write down each part of the word unchanged. In the word "gymnastic" after H we write A, as in the word "gymnast", since we write down the whole morpheme - the root "gymnast". In the word “clouds” we write the first letter O, as in the form “cloud”, since we “transfer” the whole morpheme - the root “cloud”. It cannot be destroyed, modified, because the morphological principle says: write down the whole morpheme, regardless of how it is heard and pronounced. In the word "cloud", in turn, we write the final O in the ending, as in the word "window" (this is the ending of a neuter noun in the nominative singular).
The problem of following the morphological principle in Russian writing
In Russian, the problem of writing on the morphological principle is that we constantly fall into the traps of our pronunciation. Everything would be simple if all morphemes sounded the same. However, in speech everything happens completely differently, which is why children, following the phonetic principle, make so many mistakes.
The fact is that sounds in Russian are pronounced differently, depending on their position in the word.
Search for the standard morpheme
For example, at the end of words, we never pronounce a voiced consonant - it is always stunned. This is the articulatory law of the Russian language. It's hard to imagine, but this is not the case in all languages. The English, on the other hand, are always surprised when the Russians try to apply this law and pronounce a voiceless consonant at the end of, say, the English word "dog". In a "stunned" form - "dock" - they do not recognize the word at all.
To find out which letter to write at the end of the word "steamer", we must pronounce the morpheme "move" so as not to put it in the weak position of the absolute end of the word: "walk." From this example of the use of a morpheme, it is clear that its standard ends in D.
Another example is vowel sounds. Without stress, we pronounce them "blurred", they sound clearly only under stress. When choosing a letter, we also follow the morphological principle of Russian spelling. Examples: to write down the word "walk", we must "check" an unstressed vowel - "passage". In this word, the vowel sounds clearly, standardly, which means that we record it in a "weak" position - without stress. All of these are spellings that obey the morphological principle of Russian spelling.
We also restore other standards of morphemes, not only root ones, but others as well (for example, we always write the prefix "HA" this way and no other way). And it is the reference morpheme, according to the morphological principle of Russian spelling, that we write as an element when we write a word.
Thus, the morphological principle of Russian spelling presupposes knowledge about the structure of a word, about its formation, part of speech, grammatical features (otherwise it will be impossible to restore the standards of suffixes and endings). For free and competent writing in Russian, it is necessary to have a rich vocabulary - then the search for "standards" of morphemes will be quick and automatic. Many people who read a lot write competently, since a free orientation in the language makes it easy to recognize the connections between words and their forms. It is in the course of reading that an understanding of the morphological principle of Russian spelling develops.
Spellingis a set of rules that establish: 1) uniform spelling of significant parts of a word: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings; 2) separate and continuous spelling of words and their parts; 3) the use of capital letters; 4) word hyphenation rules.
I. The rules that establish the spelling of significant parts of a word are based mainly on the morphological principle: the significant parts of a word are written uniformly, regardless of changes in the pronunciation of vowels and consonants. In this case, vowels are written as they are pronounced under stress, and consonants are written as they are pronounced before vowels or l, m, n, r,for example: 1) pain- sick, disease(root pain-spelled the same, although pronounced differently); 2) down below- down, low, low(root bottom-spelled the same, although pronounced differently).
In many cases, spellings that match and do not match pronunciation are unverifiable. However, they are transmitted uniformly in writing, for example: 1) dog- dog, Sobakevich;2) adventure- adventurer, adventurous; 3) bucket- ladle, oil- oil.
Unverifiable spellings are called traditional spellings. They need to be memorized.
In some cases, there are deviations from the morphological principle, when the uniform spelling of significant parts of the word is violated. Such deviations are primarily associated with the preservation of ancient alternations of sounds in writing, for example: believe- put, dawn- dawn, unlock- unlock.
The morphological principle is convenient: the uniform transfer of significant parts makes it easier to remember the outline.
word, speeds up the process of reading and understanding what is written.
In our spelling, there are also phonetic spelling of significant parts of the word that reflect the change in pronunciation of sounds, for example:
1) heal- eradicate, speechless- powerless;
2) sledge(sleigh) - collapse;3) name- nameless;4) climb- staircase, glisten- shine.There are few such spellings, most of them refer to the designation of prefixes on h.
The error-free application in practice of many spelling rules is directly related to the ability of the writer to quickly navigate the composition of the word.
II- Separate spelling of words is based on the principle: write all words of the Russian language, independent and official, separately, for example: Victor did not know that his friend's father and mother were sick.
In the course of the life of the language, prepositions and particles sometimes merge with the words to which they refer, forming new words, for example: at first, hard-boiled, badand so on. Spelling often lags behind the processes in the language, for example, the combination tightand by oneselfare written separately, although they are adverbs (cf. one by one).
They are used in Russian spelling and spellings with a hyphen (dash) - primarily in adverbs and compound words, for example: read in French, do not hope in an empty way, raincoat, scientific and technical.
III. The use of capital letters is associated with the selection of proper names, for example: Nikolai Alekseevich Ivanov was resting on the Black Sea coast near Yalta.
IV. The hyphenation rules are based on the division of words into syllables, taking into account the composition of the word: teacher, to celebrate, demon-extreme, pain-yoke.
If you doubt the correct spelling of words, you should refer to the spelling dictionaries, the most complete of which is the Spelling Dictionary of the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences (all editions since 1974).
The Spelling Dictionary by D. N. Ushakov and S. E. Kryuchkov has been published for many years especially for students. Published in 1995, "School spelling
graphic dictionary of the Russian language "MT Baranova answers two questions: how to spell a word and why it is spelled like that.
In the "School grammar and spelling dictionary of the Russian language" B. T. Panov and A. V. Tecuchev (the second edition of the dictionary was published in 1985) indicates not only the spelling of words, but in many cases their division into morphemes, lexical meaning, pronunciation features.
102. Read and specify: a) the morphological
writing prefixes and roots; b) unverifiable morphological
sky (traditional) spellings of roots; c) writing prefixes
and roots deviating from the morphological principle. Words on
the last two ("b" and "c") groups write out in two columns.
I. Planted, escaped, low, river, steppe, confess, gatehouse, dog, ram, asbestos, apparatus, station, paste, smash, exclaim, painting, receipt, tan, tanned, tangent, touch, request.
P. Mediocre, helpless, smell, clay, patronage, cabin, crimson, jump, bend, slippery, asphalt, build up, overgrowth, collect, assemble, corridor, gallery, collective.
103. Write off. Explain (verbally) what the split is based on.
or continuous spelling of words.
Shelter from the rain under (on) weight, value (on) the weight of gold; dash away (into) the distance, peer (into) the distance of the steppe; advance (c) the depths of the desert, move (c) the depths; return home (during) time, get sick (during) the holidays; enter (in) a dense mass of clouds, approach (in) a dense mass of clouds; pour coffee (c) a hand mill, process parts (c) manually.
104. Write off. Explain (verbally) what the use is based on
uppercase letters.
I. Observe (C, c) the northern night on the coast (C, north sea; cross (C, c) the Avkaz mountains, lush (C, Caucasian vegetation; send a spaceship from (3, h) earth to its satellite - (L , l) unu, admire the light (L, l) una, fight for peace on (3, h) earth; go down the marble (D, d) vortsovaya staircase, visit Petersburg on (D, d) vortsovaya square; sell ( K, k) chewed goods, live in (K, k) chewed lane.
P. Feats (I, i) li (M, m) uromtsa, fearlessness of Gorky (S, s) near, aphorisms (K, k) ozma (P, p) rutkova, nobility (H, h) hellish, wonderful (M, m) anilov, high society (L, l) ovelases, take on the role of (M, m) entor, whims (M, m) ecenates.
105. Read and indicate which letters are missing. Check the spelling dictionary and write it down.
Id..al, embodiment, liberal, charming, reflection, perspective, genuine, denounce, proclamations, propagandist, witness, tradition, citadel.
§ 17. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS
The use of capital letters is associated with syntactic and semantic conditions, with the emphasis of their own names, as well as with stylistic grounds.
I. The first word of every sentence that starts the text or after a period, ellipsis, question mark or exclamation mark is written with a capital letter.
Note. The first word of each line of poetic speech is written with a capital letter, for example:
... Onegin, my good friend,
Born on the banks of the Neva,
Where maybe you were born
Or shone, my reader ...(P.)
P. With a capital letter are written:
1) names, patronymics, surnames of people, pseudonyms, nicknames of animals, for example: Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, Antosha Chekhonte.
Note. The names and surnames of people are also written with a capital letter, used in a common sense, but retaining a connection with the bearer of their own name, for example: Under certain conditions great historical figures are developed from the Bazarovs.(DP) (that is, from people like the main character of the novel by I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons"). However, with the complete transition of a proper name into a common noun, a lowercase letter is written, for example: In the face of this hercules(i.e. strongman) overflowing complacency, timidity, embarrassment(Zlatovratsky);
2) geographical and administrative names, for example: Volga, Ladoga Lake, Atlantic Ocean, Ural Mountains, Kostroma city, Vologda region, Russian Federation, France, Nevsky Prospect, Victory Square;
3) the names of periodicals, literary works, factories, plants, etc., and these names are enclosed in quotation marks, for example: the Izvestia newspaper, the Novy Mir magazine, the poem In All Out Voice, the Zarya joint venture;
4) possessive adjectives with suffixes -oe-, -ev-, -in-,eg: Ivanovo childhood, Flooringdoll, Furtherdictionary.
In phraseological combinations in which the direct connection of the possessive adjective with the proper name from which it is derived is lost, a lowercase letter is used, for example: aesopian language(allegorical expression of thoughts).
Note. Possessive adjectives with suffix -sk-,formed from proper names, written with a lowercase letter, for example: lermontov's prose, Levitan's landscapes.Such adjectives are written with a capital letter only when they are part of the names that have the meaning of "name, memory of someone", for example: Lomonosov Readings, Nobel Prize;
5) all words, except for official ones, in the names of the highest legislative and governmental institutions of the country, for example: Federation Council, Federal Assembly, Security Council Russian Federation, and The Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation;
6) all words except words orderand powerin the full names of the orders, for example: order of Glory III degree.
Note. In the names of insignia in quotation marks, the first word and proper names included in the name are written with a capital letter, for example: medal "In Commemoration of the 850th Anniversary of Moscow"(but: order of the Badge of Honor);
7) all words in the names of officials and honorary
titles, for example: President of Russian Federation,
Chairman of the State Duma of the Russian Federation
tion, Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation, Hero of Russia;
8) the first word in the names of holidays and significant dates, major historical events, for example: New Year, International Women's Day, Knowledge Day, Peter's era;
9) the first word in titles educational institutions, cultural institutions, enterprises and organizations, for example: Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation, State Public Historical Library, Park of Culture and Rest, Drama Theater on Malaya Bronnaya, First Moscow Watch Factory.
III. Abbreviated names are written in capital letters, consisting of the first letters of those words that are included in the names of states, state associations, government bodies, parties, movements, institutions, enterprises and other organizations, for example: CIS, USA, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Internal Affairs, Moscow State University, ZIL, UN.In this case, no dots are put between uppercase letters.
106. Read and explain the use of capital letters.
Griboyedov's comedy "Woe from Wit", constellation Ursa Major, Kostroma region, the city of Nizhny Novgorod, St. Petersburg - a city on the Neva, the Battle of Borodino, participants in the Great Patriotic War, Teacher's Day, the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts.
107. Write down by inserting missing uppercase or lowercase
letters. Explain their use.
1) We lived in perfect harmony. I didn't want another (M, m) entor. (P.) 2) Are the representatives of Russian society all (F, f) Amus, (M, m) olchalins, (3, h) Agoretsk, (X, x) Lestakov, (T, t) Ugoukhov and the like? (Bel.)
3) The folded (K, k) Rymsky ridge stretches along the (S, S) southern coast of the peninsula in three ridges. (Micah.)
4) I dreamed of writing a book about creative work (M, Moscow (X, art theater. (Stanisl.)
108. Expand the brackets, replacing the lowercase letter where necessary
you are in capital letters; use quotation marks if necessary.
(k) racist (p) horse, (f) Senin lyrics, (e) Alev dictionary, (e) Alev dictionary, (w) osse (e) nthuziastov, (n) horse
(c) rebellion, (b) abiy (i) p, dahlia (c) vetlana, (p) respekt (c) yernadsky, (b) orodino (p) anorama, (m) alakhov (k) ur-gan, ( d) civil war, (e) en (p) print, (k) battle of evidence, (k) urgan (s) lava, order (h) nak (p) report, (p) Erm (e) ramatic (t) theater, (m) Oskovsky (t) theater (y) foot (s) reteller, (p) administration (m) of the Oskov (o) division (c) ser-Russian (t) theater (o) society, the night before (p) expectation.
§ 18. USE BFOR DESIGNATION IN THE LETTER OF THE SOFTNESS OF CONSENT
1. At the end of a word, a letter bis written after any soft consonant, except for sibilants, for example: horse (Wed: con), frost (Wed: frost), lantern("cf .: hit).
2. In the middle of a word, a letter bwritten:
a) after mild l,standing before any vowel
(hard or soft), for example: sick, herring,
flatter, boy, saw-cutter;
b) after a soft consonant in front of a hard
consonant, for example: Kuzma, less, struggle;
c) between two soft consonants only if
tea, if, when the word changes, the second consonant becomes
hard, and the first remains soft (compare with item "b"), for example:
in a request (request), Kuzmich (Kuzma), about the fight (fight).
3. Letter bnot written inside combinations chk, chn, low, nsh, rsh, rch: river, river, nurse, bricklayer, lamplighter, spoiled.
4. Letter bnot written between two soft l: illusion.
109. Write off. Explain (orally) the spelling of b.
1) A happy (?) But boring (?) Time was approaching, it was November (?) Already at the yard. (P.) 2) Nyan (?) Ka Var (?) Ka, girls (?) Ka years thirteen, shakes the cradle (?). (Ch.) 3) He has been his nanny (?) With little guys. (Dahl) 4) The rain (?) Went in gusts, turning into rain (?), Then into drizzle (?) (Are.) 5) Rime (?) - snow-like sediment like frost. (TS) 6) Laughing state (?) Ti, and brand (?) Chat glasses (L.) 7) As a reward for any cart (?), You sweep a horse. (P.) 8) On the table lay a map of the Volga, all exhausted (?) With blue and red signs (?). (Top) 9) Here is the smallest (?) Hut-
ka is decorated with the most cunning cut (?) battle. (Prishv.) 10) Do not deny me my request (?) (P.) 11) She sat down at the writing table. (P.) 12) The next day (?) I saw Zinaida only chalk (?) Com. (T.) 13) Gon (?) The cheeks took the start of wounds (?) Him in the morning. (Gas.) 14) I hate subservience, don’t l (?), Don’t humiliate yourself! (N.)
110. Change words according to patterns. Underline those standing next to
soft consonants in your formed words. With the words of each
For each group, make up two sentences.
I. 1) Twig- branch,tassel, bone, news, cane. 2) Pest- pestle,bow, umbrella, bridge, screw.
3) Get sick- disease,live, execute, flatter, sad.
P. Worms-worm,nails, milk mushrooms, areas, shipyards, by
news, honors, news, thickets, songs, fables, lazy people.
111. Write off. Explain (orally) the spelling of b.
1) Vet (?) Vi lilacs closed the weight (?) Of the house 2) Keys (?) White flowers stood out against dark greenery. 3) At the meeting, they talked about boron (?) With pests of gardens and vegetable gardens.
4) Fulfill my request (?) Bu: can (?) Mi pis (?) Ma and put them in
mailbox. 5) In the match (?) Box (?) Were
fishing hooks. 6) Mal (?) Chiki dug black (?)
for fishing. 7) Sat (?) D (?) Walked in jambs. 8) Master
taught the student rez (?) be on kos (?) ty. 9) The plant needs ra
barrels of different specialties (?) nose (?) tei: faceted (?) boxes, be-
tone (?) boxes, stone (?) boxes, electric welding (?) boxes, stove (?)
ki, tin (?) boxes. 10) On the pis (?) My table was
comfortable table (?) lamp. 11) The wives (?) Were singing
dog (?) nude.
§ 19. CONSUMPTION BFOR IDENTIFICATION OF GRAMMATIC FORMS
In some cases, the letter bserves to indicate the grammatical form of words.
Drinking b after sizzling
After the hissing bused:
a) in the nouns of the feminine singular, for example: speech, silence, rye(cf. noun male: ball, hut, watchman);
b) in the imperative mood of verbs: appoint, from-
cut, eat, prescribe, cut, eat;
c) in the indefinite form of verbs: protect, cut, be
talk, get a haircut;
d) in the 2nd person singular verbs present
go and future tense, for example: carry, throw, in
zish, rush, rush, fiddle;
e) in adverbs (except unbearable, already, married),for example
measures: unbearable, completely;
f) in particles see, I mean, just, see.
Note. In the middle of a word bsometimes used as a separator, for example: rye.
Usebin some casesand verb forms
The letter ь is used:
a) in the instrumental plural, some
some nouns and numerals (for example, put
mi, people, four),as well as in other cases chis
casting eight: eight(genus, dates, etc.), eightand
eight(TV p.);
b) in an indefinite form: to carry- mess around,
shave- to shave;
c) in the imperative mood: cook, cook
those get ready.
112. Change these words by patterns. Write off.
1. Nights- night,bream, alkali, bricks, trumpeters, little things, drawings, dugouts, things, reeds, swords, speeches.
2. Glued- glue,saw, blow, burn, lay, melt; fight, whisper, hope, build, splash, worry, practice.
113. In these phrases, imperfective verbs,
imperative, replace the verb
mi of the perfect form in the form of the same mood. Write off.
Assign a fee- schedule a fee;throw the ball, meet at the station, get up on time, correct mistakes, notify you of your arrival, console yourself as soon as possible, do not be offended by a remark, take textbooks, do not forget about consultation, sit down at the table, cut bread, go to rest.
114. Write down these phrases. Explain the spelling orally b.
Carried away (?) With the game with children (?) Mi, make a gap (?) In the enemy defense, come late at night (?), Talk with intelligent people (?) Mi, feel the fal (?) W (?), Open door (?) wide open (?), return leash (?) at dawn, time after midnight (?), blush like red fish (?), attract (?) everyone's attention.
§ 20. COMPOSITION OF THE WORD. CONSUMPTION OF SINGLE WORDS
By their composition, the words of the Russian language are different. Most Russian words in phrases and sentences are changed, that is, they are declined or conjugated. When declension and conjugation of a word in its composition, first of all, the stem and ending are distinguished, for example:
1) Deep \\ th \\ rivers \\ a] - t deep \\ yu \\ rivers \\ y] - deep ^ dЩ ^ ek]
2) Tsil \\ it \\ log [o] -drank \\ yat) rrevn [a].
3) Tell [y] comrade [y] - tell \\ eat \\ comrade [y] - tell \\ ut \\ comrade \\ am \\.
The basis reflects the lexical meaning of this word. The ending, forming word forms, serves to connect words and expresses their grammatical meanings (for example, numbers, case, person).
Sometimes the ending is not expressed in sounds (in writing - in letters). Such endings are called zero, for example: Tsrud \\ | deep)| ... Words pondand deependings are zero. They come to light when compared with other forms of these words, for example: pond $ s \\, deepuy].Wed also: We go to pond [y]... River deep[a\\. Lake deep].
Unchangeable words (for example, adverbs) consist of one stem and do not have an ending, for example:
1) Conveniently.placed (conveniently- adverb). Wed: premises conveniently] (conveniently- a short adjective in the singular neuter).
2) Going down (down- adverb). Wed: I will put my backpack in ,bottom,\\ | cabinet (down- a noun with a preposition, stands in the singular accusative case).
The stem of a word can only consist of a root (for example, rECa], npyd \\ Z \\ * but can include a prefix, suffix, multiple prefixes and suffixes (see the table for examples).
Words that include the same root are called related or same root.
