Imagery, expressiveness of speech. What is a rhetorical question and why is it needed? Examples of rhetorical questions Intonation expressiveness of speech

The expressiveness of speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, and has an impact not only on the mind, but also on the feelings and imagination of the listeners. It should be borne in mind that in science there is no single definition of the concept of "expressiveness of speech". There are different approaches to describing this quality of speech. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. Therefore, in the literature, expressiveness is distinguished pronunciation, accentological, lexical, derivational, morphological, syntactic, intonational, stylistic *
A number of researchers emphasize that the expressiveness of oral speech largely depends on the situation of communication. So, A. N. Vasilyeva writes:
Obviously, the expressiveness of the proof of the theorem and the expressiveness of the advertisement are essentially different both in content and in form. Therefore, one should first of all distinguish between informational expressiveness (object-logical, logical-conceptual) and expressiveness of sensory expression and influence. Moreover, both of these types can have subspecies: open (expressive) and hidden (impressive) forms of expression. The ratio of these species AND SUB-TYPES according to the main styles is different.
B. N. Golovin names a number of conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of an individual depends. He refers to them:
independence of thinking, activity of consciousness of the author of speech;
indifference, the interest of the author of the speech to what he speaks or writes about, and to those for whom he speaks or writes;
good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;
good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles. lei;
systematic and conscious training of speech skills;
the ability to control one's speech, to notice what is expressive in it, and what is stereotyped and gray;
the conscious intention of the author of the speech to speak and write expressively, the psychological target setting for expressiveness.
Help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of the language, traditionally called tropes and figures, as well as proverbs, sayings, phraseological expressions, winged words.
Before analyzing various figurative means language, it is necessary to clarify what properties the word has, the main tool of the speaker, the main construction material, what possibilities does yo include?
Words serve as names of objects, phenomena, actions
that is, everything that surrounds a person * However, the word also has an aesthetic function * it is able not only to name an object, action, quality * but also to create a figurative representation of them.
The concept of figurativeness of a word is associated with the phenomenon of ambiguity * It is known that Words that name only one object are considered unambiguous (pavement, sidewalk, trolleybus, tram), and words denoting several objects, phenomena of reality * - ambiguous * Polysemy in some then the degree reflects those complex relationships that exist in reality * So * if an external resemblance is found between objects or some hidden common feature is inherent in them, if they occupy the same position in relation to something, then the name of one object can become a name and another. For example: needle - sewing, spruce, hedgehog; fox - an animal and a mushroom; flexible cane - flexible person - flexible mind*
The first meaning with which the word appeared in the language is called direct, and the subsequent ones are figurative.
Direct meanings are directly related to certain objects, the names of which they are *
Figurative meanings, in contrast to direct ones, denote the facts of reality not directly, but through their relation to the corresponding direct ones.
For example, the word lacquer has two meanings: direct - “cover with varnish” and figurative - “embellish, represent something in at its best than it really is”* With the concept of the figurative meaning of a word, its figurative use is most often associated. For example, in the word splinter, a direct meaning is distinguished - “a thin, sharp, small piece of wood stuck into the body”, and figuratively - “a harmful, corrosive person” * The figurative nature of the figurative meaning of the word is obvious. When talking about a lot of something, you can use the word a lot in direct meaning, or you can use other words in a figurative sense - a forest of pipes, a hail of blows, an abyss of books, a cloud of mosquitoes, an abyss of deeds and g * d *
The concept of figurative use of words is associated with such artistic means, as a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, widely used in oratory, oral communication. The metaphor is based on the transfer of the name by similarity. Metaphors are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of activity), etc. Various parts of speech can act as a metaphor: verb, noun, adjective. Quite often, metaphors are used in everyday speech. Often we hear and say ourselves: it is raining, the clock has become steel, iron character, warm relations, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.
Metaphors should be original, unusual, evoke emotional associations, help to better understand, represent an event or phenomenon. Here, for example, what metaphors were used in the farewell speech to freshmen by the outstanding physiologist Academician A. A. Ukhtomsky:
Every year, new waves of young people come from different condos to the university to replace their predecessors. What a powerful wind drives these waves here, we begin to understand, remembering the sorrows and hardships that we had to experience, breaking through barriers to these cherished walls. With the power of instinct, young people rush here. This instinct is the desire to know, to know more and more deeply.
There are several metaphors in this passage: waves of youth, what a powerful wind drives these waves here, breaking through barriers, to these treasured walls. They create a certain emotional mood of the listeners, make them feel the significance of what is happening.
A special effect is achieved when the direct and metaphorical meanings of the word collide in speech. For example, the following phrase sounds intriguing: “We have a sad anniversary today. Exactly one year ago, our city was shocked by a tragic event: a train wreck occurred at the railway station.” IN this proposal the verb shocked has a direct meaning (“make tremble, shake, hesitate”) and figuratively (“strongly excite, make a great impression”).
However, the use of metaphors, direct and figurative meanings of words do not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors, "Too shiny
syllable, - wrote Aristotle, - makes imperceptible both characters and thoughts.
The abundance of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.
Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If in metaphor two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other.
In K. M. Simonov, in one of the poems we read: “And the hall rises, and the hall sings, and it is easy to breathe in the hall.” In the first and second cases, the word hall means people, in the third - "room". Therefore, here the name of the room is used to name those who are in it. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words audience, class, school, apartment, house, factory, collective farm to refer to people.
The word can be called the material and products from this material (Sgold, silver, bronze, porcelain, cast iron, clay). So, one of the sports commentators, talking about international competitions, said: “Our athletes got gold and silver, the French got bronze.”
Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense / For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ruling circles”: “negotiations between London and Washington”, “Paris is worried”, “Warsaw has made a decision”, etc. The names refer to the people who live in the area. So, Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.
Synecdoche - a trope, the essence of which lies in the fact that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of a part, plural- instead of the only one.
An example of the use of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M. A. Sholokhov about the character of a Russian person. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:
The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who without hesitation gave the last piece of bread and thirty grams of front-line sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland.
Good name Ivan!
Comparison. This is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, what is being compared (“object”), secondly, with what it is compared (“image”), thirdly, on the basis of which one is compared with another (“feature” ).
So, A. V. Lunacharsky, speaking at the First All-Union Congress of Teachers, spoke about the organic connection of all levels of education, about the role of science in the life of the country. Explaining his idea, he resorted to a simple and convincing comparison for that time:
Just as a building cannot be built without cement, so it is now impossible to direct state or economic affairs without science.
In this example, science (“object”) is compared with cement (“image”), without which a building cannot be built (“sign”).
Since comparison implies the presence of not one, but two images, the listener receives two information that are interconnected, that is, one image is complemented by another. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, pays special attention to it. All this leads to better assimilation and memorization of what was said, which is very important for the listener. When reading a book, an article, then strange place You can re-read it and come back to it again. When a speech is listened to, then, as a rule, only after its completion can one be asked to explain something that turned out to be incomprehensible.
Comparison will be effective only when it is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the idea, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in
originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing together objects, phenomena or actions that, it would seem, have nothing in common with each other, P * Sergeyich in the book "The Art of Speech in Court" writes:
The greater the differences in the objects of comparison, the more unexpected the similarities, the better the comparison.
Originally, for example, I. P. Pavlov showed the role of facts in science, referring to young scientists:
Accustom yourself to restraint and patience * Learn to do the dirty work in science * Study, compare, accumulate facts.
No matter how perfect the wing of a bird, it could never lift it into the air without leaning on the air.
Facts are the air of a scientist. Without them, you will never be able to take off* Without them, your "theories" are empty attempts*
But in studying, experimenting, observing, try not to remain at the surface of the facts. Don't become archivists of facts. Try to penetrate the mystery of their origin* Persistently seek the laws that govern them.
In oral presentations, comparisons are often used to draw the attention of listeners to the subject of conversation * To do this, they resort to a complex, detailed comparison that allows the listener to better understand the problem being covered, to better understand the topic of conversation *
Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: “brave as a lion”; "cowardly as a hare"; "reflected as in a mirror"; “go through the red thread”, etc. It is bad when false comparisons are used in speech * Such comparisons make it difficult to understand the main idea of ​​the speaker, divert the attention of listeners from the content of the speech *
Epithets - artistic definitions * They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement * Pay attention to what expressive epithets he finds
A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:
A brightly colored emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad, and traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana in Persia. A whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with dense green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is almost unparalleled (emphasized by us. - Auth.).
As with other means of speech expressiveness, epithets are not recommended to be abused, as this can lead to beautiful speech at the expense of its clarity and intelligibility. The advice of A.P. Chekhov may be useful in this respect. In one of his letters he noted:
... when reading proofs, cross out, where possible, definitions of nouns and verbs. You have so many definitions that it's hard for the reader's attention to sort out and gets tired. It is understandable when I write: “A man sat down on the grass”, this is understandable, because it is clear and ps delays attention. On the contrary, it is incomprehensible and hard for the brain if I write: “A tall, narrow-chested, medium-sized man with a red beard sat down on the green grass, already crushed by pedestrians, sat down silently, looking around timidly and timidly.” It does not immediately fit into the brain.
A complete and generally accepted theory of the epithet does not yet exist. There is no common understanding of the content of the term epithet. In the scientific literature, three types of epithets are usually distinguished: general language (constantly used in the literary language, have stable connections with the word being defined: biting frost, quiet evening, fast running); folk-poetic (used in oral folk art: red maiden, open field, wolf earrings); individually-author's (created by the authors: marmalade mood (A. Chekhov), chumpy indifference (D. Pisarev).
Great help in the selection of fresh epithets and their successful use can be provided by the Dictionary of Epithets of the Russian Literary Language by K. S. Gorbachevich, E. P. Khablo (L., 1979).
For clarity, we will cite materials from the dictionary entry for the word authority, omitting the examples of the use of epithets in works of art given there.
Authority, With a positive assessment. Boundless, big, important (outdated *), universal, high, enormous, - deserved, healthy, exceptional, unshakable, unshakable, unlimited, irrefutable, indisputable, infallible, adamant, indisputable, universally recognized, huge, justified, recognized, lasting, holy (obsolete), solid, stable, good*
With a negative rating. Penny (colloquial), cheap (colloquial *), exaggerated (colloquial), fake (spacious), low, unjustified, soaked (colloquial), undermined, staggering, doubtful, shaky.
Rare epithets - Gothy, doctoral, fiery.
To enliven speech, give it emotionality, expressiveness, figurativeness, they also use the techniques of stylistic syntax, the so-called figures: antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc. *
Since ancient times, orators have introduced these figures into their speech. * For example, Marcus Tullius Cicero delivered several speeches against Lucius Sergius Catiline, a patrician by birth, who led a conspiracy to seize power by force. Addressing the quirites (as full-fledged Roman citizens were officially called in ancient Rome), Cicero said:
... A sense of honor is fighting on our side, on that - impudence; here - modesty, there - debauchery; here - fidelity, there - deceit; here is valor, there is crime; here - steadfastness, there - fury; here - an honest name, there - shame; here - restraint, there - licentiousness; in a word, justice, moderation, courage, prudence, all virtues fight against injustice, depravity, laziness, recklessness, all kinds of vices; finally, abundance fights poverty, decency - with meanness, reason - with madness, finally, good hopes - with complete hopelessness.
In speech, sharply opposite concepts are compared: honor - impudence, shame - depravity, loyalty - deceit, valor - crime, steadfastness - furious
good name - disgrace, restraint - licentiousness, etc. This has a special effect on the imagination of listeners, arouses in them vivid ideas about the named objects and events. Such a technique, based on a comparison of opposite phenomena and signs, is called antithesis. As P. Sergeyevich said:
... the main advantages of this figure are that both parts of the antithesis mutually illuminate one another; thought wins in strength; at the same time, the thought is expressed in a compressed form, and this also increases its expressiveness.
The antithesis is widely represented in proverbs and sayings: “The courageous one blames himself, the cowardly blames his comrade”; “Great in body, but small in deed”, “Labor always gives, but laziness only takes”; "It's thick on the head, but the head is empty." To compare two phenomena, proverbs use antonyms - words with the opposite meaning: courageous - cowardly, great - small, labor - laziness, thick - empty. Many lines from artistic, journalistic, poetic works are built on this principle. Antithesis is an effective means of speech expressiveness in public speech.
Here is an excerpt from A. Solzhenitsyn's Nobel lecture. The use of antithesis, the comparison of opposite concepts allowed the writer to express main idea more vividly and emotionally, more precisely express your attitude to the described phenomena:
What, according to one scale, seems from a distance an enviable prosperous freedom, then on another scale, close up, it feels like an annoying compulsion calling for overturning buses. What in one region would be dreamed of as implausible prosperity, in another region revolts as wild exploitation, requiring an immediate strike. Different scales for elemental. disasters: a flood of two hundred thousand victims seems smaller than our urban case. There are different scales for insulting a person: where even an ironic smile and a move away are humiliating, where severe beatings are excusable as a bad joke. Different scales for punishments, for atrocities. According to one scale, a month's arrest, or exile to the village, or a "punishment cell" where they are fed with white buns and milk, staggers the imagination, floods the newspaper pages with anger. And on a different scale, they are familiar and easier -
us - and prison terms of twenty-five years * and punishment cells, where
walls of ice, where people are stripped to their underwear, and lunatic asylums for the healthy, and frontier executions of countless unreasonable people, all for some reason running somewhere.
A valuable means of expression in a speech is inversion, i.e., changing the usual word order in a sentence with a semantic and stylistic purpose * So, if the adjective is placed not before the noun to which it refers, but after it, then this enhances the meaning of the definition, the characteristic of the subject . Here is an example of such an arrangement: He was passionately in love not just with reality, but with reality that is constantly evolving, with reality forever new and unusual.
To draw the attention of listeners to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in the declarative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.
Thanks to all sorts of permutations in a sentence, even if it consists of a small number of words, it is often possible to create several versions of one sentence, and each of them will have different semantic shades * Naturally, when permuting, it is necessary to monitor the accuracy of the statement.
Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetitions. There are many different forms of repetition. Start several sentences with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which in Greek means monogamy. Here is how this technique was used by L. I * Leonov in a report dedicated to the 150th anniversary of the birth of A. S. Griboyedov:
There are books that are read; there are books that are studied by patient people; there are books that are kept in the heart of the nation. My liberated people highly appreciated the noble wrath of "Woe from Wit" and, setting off on a distant and hard way I took this book with me
The writer repeated the combination three times there are books in the same syntactic constructions and thus prepared the listeners for the idea that the work of A, S, Griboyedov “Woe from Wit” occupies a special place in the hearts of Russian people.
Repetitive words are service units, for example, unions and particles. Repeating, they perform an expressive function* Here is an excerpt from A* E* Fersman's lecture "Stone in the Culture of the Future". Repeatedly repeating the interrogative particle is it, the scientist enhances the intonational coloring of speech, creates a special emotional mood;
And when we try to characterize the future of technology in this way, you involuntarily guess the role that our precious stone will play in whom.
Does it not, more than anything else, meet precisely these qualities? Are not the precious stones themselves the emblem of firmness, constancy and eternity? Is there anything harder than diamond that can match the strength and indestructibility of this form of carbon?
*..Aren't corundum in its numerous modifications, topaz and garnet the main grinding materials, and only new artificial products of human genius can be compared with them?
Are not quartz, zircon, diamond and corundum one of the most stable chemical groupings of nature, and are not the fire resistance and immutability of many of them under high temperatures do not far exceed the fire resistance of the vast majority of other bodies?
Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, make more visual the core thought contained in them,
In oral speech, repetitions are also found at the end of a phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora. Here is an example of an epiphora from an article by V. G. Belinsky:
For such poets, it is most unprofitable to appear in transitional epochs in the development of societies; but the true ruin of their talent lies in the false conviction that feeling is enough for a poet.*. This is especially harmful for the poets of our time: now all poets, even the great ones, must also be thinkers, otherwise talent will not help either.*. science, live, modern science, has now become the tutor of art, and without her - inspiration is weak, talent is powerless! *.
If you ask the question: “What form of speech does a lecture, report, speech at a meeting refer to? Is it a dialogue or a monologue?”, no one will think for a long time. Everyone will say: “Of course, a monologue * Only one person speaks, his speech is not designed for the verbal reaction of the interlocutor. The performance, moreover, can be long. But is it good? After all, listeners also want to say something: to object to the speaker or agree with him, ask to clarify some thought, clarify something, explain an incomprehensible word. How to proceed in such a case? There is an exit*
In the practice of oratory, techniques have been developed that not only enliven the narrative, give it expressiveness, but also dialogize monologue speech.
One of these techniques is the question-and-answer move. It lies in the fact that the speaker, as if anticipating the objections of the listeners, guessing their possible questions, formulates such questions himself and answers them himself. The question-answer move turns a monologue speech into a dialogue, makes listeners the speaker's interlocutors, activates their attention, and engages them in a scientific search for truth.
Skillfully and interestingly posed questions attract the attention of the audience, make them follow the logic of reasoning. The question-answer move is one of the most accessible oratorical techniques. The proof of this is the lecture “Cold Light”, read by the largest master of popularization of scientific knowledge S. I. Vavilov:
The question arises, why does an alcohol flame, into which table salt is introduced, glow with a bright yellow light, despite the fact that its temperature is almost the same as the temperature of a match? The reason is that the flame is not completely black for any colors* Only the yellow color is absorbed by nm in more, therefore, only in this yellow part of the spectrum, the alcohol flame behaves like a warm radiator with the properties of a black body.
How does the new physics explain the amazing properties of "cold light"? The enormous advances made by science in understanding the structure of atoms and molecules, as well as the nature of light, made it possible, at least in general terms, to understand and explain luminescence.
How, finally, is the quenching of the "cold light" that we see in experience explained? The reasons in different cases are significantly different.
The effectiveness of this technique is especially noticeable if the corresponding part of the speech is pronounced without interrogative sentences.
The question-answer move is used not only to make speech expressive and emotional, but also used as an effective tool in hidden polemics. If the speech sets out a controversial issue that may cause doubt among the audience, then the speaker, foreseeing this, resorts to a question-answer technique.
The lecture is also enlivened by the replicas of the audience supposed by the speaker, with whom he either agrees or argues. These lines also introduce elements of dialogue into the monologue. Thus, the well-known Russian historian V.O. Let us quote the passages from his lecture:
Except for rare eccentrics, we usually try to surround and present ourselves in the best possible way, to seem to ourselves and others even better than we really are. You will say: this is vanity, vanity, pretense* So, absolutely so. Let me just draw your attention to two very nice impulses.<..>
And look how she (the noblewoman Fedosya Prokofievna Morozova * - Auth.), Left a young widow, in a "pacified manner", in our mourning, left the house: she was put into an expensive carriage, decorated with silver and mosaics, at six or twelve horses with rattling chains; She was followed by servants, slaves and slaves of a hundred people, and with a particularly solemn train from two hundred and three hundred, protecting the honor and health of their empress mother. The queen of Assyria, and only, you will say, is a slave of a superstitious and conceited magnificent age. Fine*
In excerpts, V. O. Klyuchevsky highlights the opinion of the audience with the words you will say and then formulates his attitude to this: So, absolutely so. Fine.
Techniques of dialogization of a monologue, characteristic of oratory, have become widespread in journalism and fiction.
In addition to the question-answer method, the so-called emotional or rhetorical question is often used. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that it does not require an answer, but serves to emotionally affirm or deny something. Addressing the audience with a question is an effective technique.
The rhetorical question uttered by the speaker is perceived by the audience not as a question that needs to be answered, but as a positive statement. This is precisely the meaning of the rhetorical question in the final part of A.E. Fersman's lecture "Green Stones of Russia":
What could be more interesting and beautiful than this close connection between the deep laws of the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust and the spread in it of its inanimate flowers - a precious stone?!
The glory of the Russian green stone is rooted in the deep laws of Russian geochemistry, and it is no accident that our country has become a country of green gems.
The rhetorical question enhances the impact of speech on the listeners, awakens in them the corresponding feelings, carries a great semantic and emotional load.
The means of expression include direct speech, which is introduced into the speech. This speech can be accurate or approximate, and sometimes even fictional. Literally transmitted someone else's speech is called a quotation. Sometimes it seems that quoting does not require special skill. However, this also has its own characteristics, its positive and negative sides, which must be taken into account. For example, some people build their speech on some quotes. Such speeches cause bewilderment, that is, listeners want to know the opinion of the speaker himself, the results of his observations. In addition, the abundance of quotations tires the audience, since it is difficult to hear by ear what is said belongs to the author, and what to those whom he quotes . Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to select the most interesting, informative, original or least known from the quotations chosen for the presentation.
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Speakers do not always skillfully introduce a quote, do not take into account how it is perceived by ear.
It is necessary to present the quotation in such a way that it is easy to catch where it begins and ends.
It is very important not to distort the thought of the cited author. After all, a single sentence or several sentences may have a different meaning than in the context.
It is impossible to arbitrarily change the text, i.e., rearrange words, enter another instead of one word, change the grammatical form of words.
The quotation must be accurate.
It is necessary to know who the quoted words belong to, what source they are taken from, what the output of the source is. Sometimes this information is given after the quotation, when the literature used is called, or when questions from the audience are answered, if anyone present asks about it.
In conversations on various topics in which you have to discuss other people's thoughts, actions, actions, talk about people's feelings, approximate (or fictional) direct speech is mainly used. It enlivens the statement, makes it emotional, attracts the attention of listeners. The introduction of direct speech helps to dialogize the statement. Successfully, for example, used direct speech in the lecture "Scientific and technological progress and mathematics" Academician B. V. Gnedenko;
After we demonstrated the machine and our guests worked with it themselves, Professor Ivanov, whom I told you about, said: “Come work with us, we can diagnose well, with us you will be able to create a machine that will diagnose no worse world's best diagnostician.
The general practitioner, a specialist in the diagnosis of diseases of the digestive tract, said differently: “Why did you take on such a difficult task as diagnosing heart diseases. Let's work together and we will create a machine that will diagnose with virtually no errors.
Finally, psychiatrists reacted like this: “Well, why did you take up the diagnosis of heart disease,” they said. - Every engineer will tell you that the heart is a simple pump that drives fluid through the pipes. But no one knows the human psyche. Let's work with us. Things cannot go on here without mathematicians. And any step in the field of studying higher nervous activity will be the greatest boon for mankind. Not only human diseases are associated with the psyche. All daily human activity depends on it. We do not know the possibilities of the human psyche, we do not know how much we can contaminate it. We do not know whether we are teaching people correctly, whether we are treating them correctly.”
Experienced speakers not only introduce direct speech into the text, but also comment on someone else's statement, determine their attitude to it, and sometimes enter into a debate with a specific (or fictional) person whose speech is quoted. Let us give an example of the use of this technique in the lecture "On the most important subjects of education", read by the professor of Moscow University P * S, Aleksandrov:
Yesterday, the statement of one of the greatest contemporary physicists, the old Goettingen professor Max Born, burst into my hands: “The future of science depends on whether this need, impulse and striving for creativity can be harmonized and harmonized with the conditions of social life and ethics” *
To these words one can only add that not only the fate of science, but, perhaps, the fate of mankind depends on this.
As a form of transferring someone else's statements into speeches, indirect speech is also used, which conveys someone's words from a third person. An example of the introduction of indirect speech is found in the above-mentioned lecture by P. S. Aleksandrov;
Tchaikovsky spoke of music as a special means of communication between people, which cannot be replaced by any other means of communication. I remember one concert at the conservatory: they gave Beethoven's First Symphony* I noticed the expression on the faces of our students.
Indirect speech, compared to direct speech, is less expressive and expressive * As rightly noted by P * Sergeicht
... to convey in a completely understandable way someone else's feeling, someone else's thought is incomparably more difficult in descriptive expressions than in those words in which this feeling or thought is expressed directly. * * The last way of expression is both more precise and understandable, and, most importantly, more convincing for listeners.
A good effect is given by a skillful combination of direct and indirect speech in the speech * On the one hand, this avoids abundant quoting, and on the other hand, it makes the statement more diverse and vivid. As an example, we use an excerpt from a lecture on the work of N, A * Nekrasov:
We are convinced that truly innovative creations always cause conflicting opinions, ambiguous assessments of contemporaries. Remember the critics' rejection of The Thunderstorm, the struggle and controversy surrounding the novel Fathers to Sons*, * The same fate befell Nekrasov's lyrics. The opinions and assessments of readers and critics are sharply divided *
So, a connoisseur of elegance, a well-known esthete critic Vasily Botkin, argued that Nekrasov’s poems cannot “truly excite - what a rude syllable, clumsy phrases *, as if it were not a sculptor who sculpted from noble marble, but a peasant chopped a log with an ax”,
At the same time, Belinsky "gave his head to cut off that Nekrasov has talent", that he is "a poet - and a true poet." Turgenev "in a moment of irritation assured that "poetry did not spend the night in Nekrasov's verses," but he also admitted that the poem "I'm going at night ..." he was "completely crazy": "I repeat this amazing work and have already learned by heart.
Nekrasov himself exclaimed contritely: “You have no poetry of your own. but my harsh, clumsy verse"* And Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov called him "the only fine hope of our literature*," the most beloved Russian poet*.
Which of them is right? How to reconcile the seemingly irreconcilable? Where is the truth?
The work that we will do today will allow us to approach the solution of this issue.
Rich material for speeches contains oral folk art * Proverbs and sayings are a real treasure for a speaker. These are well-aimed figurative folk expressions with an edifying meaning, summarizing various phenomena of life * In short sayings, the people expressed knowledge of reality, attitude to its various manifestations * They help to understand the history of our people, teach to love the Motherland, to be honest and fair. Proverbs magnify labor, condemn laziness, ridicule greed, strengthen faith in goodness and justice, call to respect knowledge and books. “And what a luxury, what a meaning, what is the use of every saying of ours! What a gold!” - this is how A. S. Pushkin spoke about Russian proverbs *
Proverbs and sayings are clots of folk wisdom, they express the truth, proven by the centuries-old history of the creator people, the experience of many generations. “The proverb is not said in vain,” says folk wisdom. They express joy and sorrow, anger and sadness, love and hate, irony and humor. Therefore, in speech, proverbs and sayings acquire special meaning* They not only enhance the expressiveness of speech, give sharpness, deepen the content of speeches, but also help to find the way to the heart of the audience, win their respect and favor.
What attracts proverbs and sayings? Why are they recommended for use in oral presentations?
The generalizing nature of proverbs and sayings allows in a figurative and extremely short form express the essence of the statement. Folk sayings are also given to formulate individual provisions of the statement.
Often proverbs and sayings serve as a starting point for starting a speech, developing a topic, revealing a position, or they are the final chord, a conclusion, they are used to summarize what has been said * Here, for example, how A. Solzhenitsyn ended the Nobel lecture:
In Russian, proverbs about truth are favorite * They persistently express a considerable difficult folk experience, and sometimes amazingly:
ONE WORD OF TRUTH WILL DRAW THE WHOLE WORLD*
It is on such an imaginary violation of the law of conservation of mass and energy that my own activity and my appeal to writers all over the world are based*
Proverbs and sayings are also given as illustrations, figurative parallels to what is being said. This use of proverbs and sayings allows you to express the idea more vividly and convincingly. Figurative illustrations are remembered for a long time by listeners. Interestingly, M. A. Sholokhov beat a folk saying in one of his speeches:
An old folk saying, born long ago where swift mountain streams seethe, says: "Only small rivers are noisy."
The meetings of regional and regional writers' organizations, meetings filled with sharp polemics and fervent speeches, died down. Republican conventions were held at a more restrained level.
An example of the use of proverbs as figurative parallels that reinforce an idea is contained in the speech of G. E. Nikolaeva:
“A fisherman brings a fisherman from afar,” there is such a proverb. Talent from afar will see talent. The mind from afar recognizes the mind and reaches out to it. Principledness recognizes principles from afar and is drawn to it. Limitedness and unscrupulousness also from afar recognize limitedness and unscrupulousness and are also drawn to each other. Therefore, it is dangerous when people who are in charge of a creative organization are mediocre and unprincipled, who do not know the value of genuine ascetic writing work, are limited in their convictions and are not capable of a masterly, objective view of literature.
In this speech, the proverb is not only an illustration. The subsequent sentences have the same syntactic structure, close to that of the proverb. A slightly different word order creates a greater contrast and is explained by the fact that nouns have talent, intelligence, adherence to principles, narrow-mindedness, unprincipledness coincide in spelling and sounding of the form of the nominative and accusative cases. Compare: "A fisherman sees a fisherman from afar", but "Talent from afar will see talent." The closeness of the structure of the folk proverb and the author's sentences makes the latter aphoristic, authentic. The meaning of the proverb extends to other phenomena of life, at the same time expanding and concretizing.
Proverbs and sayings enliven the statement, attract the attention of listeners, creating a certain psychological mood.
Sometimes proverbs and sayings are attracted to give the statement a playful-ironic connotation. In this sense
In addition, the proverb is found in the speech of S. V * Mikhalkov at the congress of writers, in which he speaks of satirical and comedic genres:
Too often we have to listen to such arguments: “Where have you seen such fools in our reality? Such official balls are not typical for our state apparatus*. But after all, we know that there are such fools, and that they spoil our whole life in order, and if the viewer laughs heartily at them, then this is exactly what is required. After all, it’s not for nothing that the popular proverb says: “Fear the cow in front, the horse in the back, and the fool on all sides” *
The above proverb gives the words an ironic connotation, enlivens the performance and arouses the approval of people.
The success of using proverbs and sayings in speech depends on how well the necessary proverbs and sayings are chosen * No wonder it says: "A proverb is good in harmony and in color."
The phraseology of the Russian language is used to create imagery and emotionality of speech. It is unusually rich and diverse in its composition, has great stylistic possibilities, due to its internal properties, which make up the specifics of phraseological units * This is semantic capacity, emotionally expressive coloring, a variety of associative links * Expression of the emotional, subjective beginning in speech * appraisal, semantic saturation of phraseological units act constantly, regardless of the will of the speaker *
Phraseological units help to say a lot with a few words, since they define not only the subject, but also its attribute, not only the action, but also its circumstances * The complexity of the semantics of phraseological units distinguishes them from one-word synonyms * So, a stable combination in a big way means not just “rich” , but "richly, luxuriously, not embarrassed by means." Phraseologism to cover up traces means not just “destroy, eliminate something”, but “eliminate, destroy what can serve as evidence in something” *
Phraseology attracts speakers with its expressiveness, the potential to positively or negatively evaluate the phenomenon, express approval or condemnation, ironic, mocking or other attitude towards it. This is especially pronounced in the so-called phraseological units-characteristics, for example: a white crow, a decoy duck, a prodigal son, an intimidating dozen, a berry in a field, a dog in the hay.
Phraseologisms deserve special attention, the evaluation of which is due to their origin. Indeed, in order to understand the accusatory nature of phraseological units, for example, the gifts of the Danes, the scapegoat, one must know the history of the emergence of a stable phrase. Why are the gifts of the Danaans "insidious gifts that bring death to those who receive them", what is the history of the appearance of this phraseological unit? The expression is taken from the Greek legends about the Trojan War. “The Danes, after a long and unsuccessful siege of Troy, resorted to a trick: they built a huge wooden horse, left it at the walls of Troy, and pretended to swim away from the shore of the Troad. The priest Laocoon, seeing this horse and knowing the tricks of the Danaans, exclaimed: “Whatever it is, I am afraid of the Danaans, even those who bring gifts!” But the Trojans, not listening to the warnings of Laocoön and the prophetess Cassandra, dragged the city out. At night, the Danaans, who hid inside the horse, went out, killed the guards, opened the city gates, let in their comrades who returned on ships, and thus captured Troy.
The origin of the expression scapegoat is also noteworthy. It is found in the Bible and is associated with a special rite among the ancient Jews to lay the sins of the whole people on a living goat, which is why they call a person who is blamed for someone else's guilt, who is responsible for others.
Phraseologisms, originating from ancient mythology, are quite diverse. Each such phraseologism evokes certain associative links, it relates to the images of the heroes of antiquity, which determines their semantic richness and expressiveness. So, the stable phrase Damocles sword in the meaning of “imminent, threatening danger” is associated with the ancient Greek legend about Damocles, who was one of the close associates of the Syracusan tyrant Dionysius the Elder and enviously spoke of him as the happiest of people. Dionysius decided to teach the envious man a lesson and seated him in his place during the feast. And here Damocles saw a sharp sword hanging over his head, hanging on a horsehair. Dionysius explained * that this is a symbol of the dangers to which he, as a ruler, is constantly exposed, despite the seeming happy life *
Phraseologism Procrustean bed comes from the nickname of the robber Polypemon. In Greek mythology, it is said that Procrustes laid all those he caught on his bed and chopped off the legs of those * who did not fit, and for those for whom the bed was long, stretched out their legs * Procrustean bed means “that which is a measure for something, to which something is forcibly adjusted or adapted.
Ancient phraseological units serve as an excellent means for conveying the author's irony, ridicule. Such a function is performed by the revolutions of the exploits of Hercules, the Trojan horse, Sisyphean labor, Pandora's box, between Scylya and Charybdis, Pyrrhic victory, Aesopian language, Babylonian pandemonium.
The stylistic use of many emotionally expressive phraseological units is determined by the peculiarity of the relationship between general meaning phraseologism and the meaning of its components. Phraseological units are of particular interest, the figurativeness of which acts as a reflection of the visibility, “pictureness” contained in the freest phrase * on the basis of which a phraseological unit is formed. For example, when preparing for work, we roll up our sleeves to make it easier to do the job; meeting dear guests, we spread our arms wide, showing that we are ready to wrap them in our arms; when counting, if it is small, for convenience, we bend our fingers. Free phrases naming such actions of people have visibility, “picturesqueness”, which “by inheritance” is transmitted to homonymous phraseological units: roll up your sleeves - “diligently, diligently * vigorously do something”; with open arms - "friendly, cordial (to receive, meet someone)"; count on fingers - "very little, little."
The picturesqueness of a phraseological unit, due to the visibility of a free phrase homonymous to it * becomes especially visible when the direct and figurative meaning is played out at the same time. This is one of the stylistic devices. Let us give an example of such use of a phraseological unit in one of the journalistic articles; "Emergency exit" - advice to the owners of companies that are threatened by takeovers, mergers and other digestive functions of competition. True, an emergency exit does not guarantee against disappearance in the element of competition. You pull yourself together, and they take you by the throat. Breathing stops, hands drop.
You pull yourself together - a phraseological unit with the aim of "achieve complete self-control", and take it by the throat means "oppress, force you to act in a certain way." In the cited text, a phraseological unit is used, but the direct meaning of the free phrase “take by the throat” shines through it. The phrase “hands down” has a direct meaning, but the meaning of a phraseological unit pulsates in it - “to lose the ability or desire to act, to do something”.
This chapter contains only some of the tropes, figures, techniques that help make speech figurative and emotional. However, they do not exhaust the whole variety of expressive means of native speech. Resorting to them, one should not forget that all these “flowers of eloquence”, as the prominent master of Russian judicial eloquence P.S. Porohovshchikov (P.Sergeich) called them, are good only when they seem unexpected to the listener. They cannot, and do not need to be memorized, they can only be absorbed into oneself along with folk speech, developing and improving speech culture, speech taste and flair.
The culture of speech is not only a sign of a person's high culture, but also due to the latter, so it is important to systematically engage in self-education. Great importance to improve speech culture, work with reference literature, familiarity with various linguistic dictionaries has. An invaluable service will be provided by contacting domestic literature especially to poetry.
For great writers, every single word is chosen consciously, with a specific purpose - P. S. Porokhovshikov taught young speakers, - every single turn is deliberately created for a given thought.<..>We<...>must know Pushkin by heart; whether we like poetry or not, it doesn't matter; obliged to know native language in all its abundance. Try to get rich daily.
It must be remembered that the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording - the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of pictorial and means of expression language, proverbs and sayings, winged words, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary increase the effectiveness of communication, enhance the effectiveness of the spoken word *

expressiveness- this is the quality of speech, which, with its properties and features, maintains the attention and interest of listeners (readers). Therefore, speech culture is not only a good knowledge of the language, the ability to use its wealth, but also the possession of the expressive possibilities of speech.

expressiveness- it is first of all imagery speech, its brightness, originality. Figurative speech with its properties affects the consciousness, forms concrete-sensual ideas about reality.

Figurativeness is unthinkable without the richness of speech, for it is achieved by linguistic means, in other words: skillful use of all the richness of the language, fluency in its lexical diversity - homonyms, synonyms, paronyms, antonyms, phraseological units.

Imagery is inherent primarily in written speech, in which the author has the opportunity to improve his text as much as possible in order to most fully convey his feelings, thoughts, intentions. It is a well-chosen, bright word that makes speech bright, unforgettable.

The second, no less important means of speech expressiveness is intonation. Under intonation understand the various shades of the reader's voice, which reflect the semantic and emotional aspects of speech.

The intonation is made up of logical stress, pauses, tempo, strength And pitch, tone. All these elements of intonation are closely interconnected, complement each other, are determined by the content of speech and are determined by the choice of the speaker, i.e. depends entirely on his speech intentions.

Intonation, speech expressiveness is the prerogative of oral speech.

What kind of conscious choice of expressive intonational means can we talk about?

From the standpoint of speech expressiveness, clarity And clarity of pronunciation, good diction, accuracy of stress, voice capabilities, correct breathing- in a word, all those components that have common name – speech technique.

Speech technique- this is a system of work of the speaker (orator, reader) on his speech apparatus.

So, speech technique, intonational logic sounding speech, emotional-figurative expressiveness(expressiveness) - three interrelated components of intonation, expressive triad , which forms the basis of performing skills, the essence of which is the ability to "draw with intonation".

Let's dwell on the technical side of intonation. breath, voice And diction- components of word formation, i.e. speech apparatus in action.

speech breathing differs from the usual, physiological, involuntary, when inhalation - exhalation - pause rhythmically alternate. Speech breathing is abdominal (diaphragmatic). During speaking (reading), breathing becomes arbitrary, consciously controlled and controlled: a deep breath is followed by a short pause, and then a slow, smooth exhalation, during which the act of speaking (reading) takes place.

Proper breathing is free breathing (devoid of tension), deep, imperceptible, automatically subordinated to the will of the speaker (reader). In this case, it is necessary not to overfill the lungs with air and not to exhale completely. Several training exercises will teach you to take the right breaths and smooth exhalations until the inseparable text is fully pronounced. Such exercises are convenient to carry out when reading proverbs.

The purity of the voice of the speaker (reader) also depends on proper breathing.

Voice- the most delicate and subtle tool that every person should easily and freely own. The voice must be well developed, modulated, loud enough, so it must be protected, exercised, enriched, improved, developed. The best is the voice of medium strength and height, as it is the most mobile and flexible.

Good diction - one of the most important conditions for expressive speech. It enables a clear sound and quick understanding of any word. This gives rise to strict requirements not only for expressive, but also cultural speech in general: dictional purity, clarity, intelligibility, as well as strict adherence to orthoepic norms and rules of literary stress.

means of implementation logical expressiveness of the sounding text are the arrangement of logical stresses, pauses, a change in the tempo of pronouncing speech measures, the play of the voice. To create the appropriate melody of speech, it is necessary to mentally divide it into parts and, within each of these parts, find the logical centers and logic of pronouncing the phrase as a whole.

good speech- meaningful paused speech. Pauses make live speech natural, clear, expressive. Pauses not only dismember speech, but also unite it: the words between pauses acquire semantic unity.

An important means of logical expressiveness is pace. It slows down or speeds up, due to the stretching or compaction of the time needed to pronounce words and make pauses. The pace of reading depends on the genre of the speech work, on the nature of the depicted pictures, phenomena.

The rise and fall of the voice, the increase and decrease in its volume and strength, the acceleration and deceleration of the tempo creates logical melodic phrase, which in speech score (graphic description of the melodic pattern of speech) is indicated by the corresponding icons, and in writing it is determined by punctuation marks.

Emotional-figurative expressiveness living speech is not limited to comprehensibility, intonation logic. Every word that comes out of a person's mouth, except for will and intention, reveals his state. At the same time, each person expresses his feelings in his own way. In order for the thought to be preserved as clearly as possible during the transmission of a judgment, it is necessary to clearly see in front of us are the images that we want to convey to our audience, with which we strive to captivate our listeners. Only in this way will the audience be able to “see” these images. Otherwise, the words themselves, not illuminated by the internal representation, will slip past the consciousness and imagination of those to whom they are intended, and will become only combinations of sounds denoting concepts, but the meaning of these concepts and their meaning will not be revealed by the addressees. Such images that appear before the mind's eye of a person are usually called in the special literature. in and́ denia.

In and́ denia are needed not only when speaking, but also when reading the text, they must correspond to the meaning of the spoken speech, to the events that we are talking about, because it is impossible to pronounce the text without imagining the reality behind it. Visions should reflect subtext.

The degree of clarity, detail and continuity of visions is not the same. Usually, pictures and images appear in our imagination immediately at the birth of a thought, but they are not so complete and clear. Bright and accurate visions, figurative representations develop gradually, in the process of training, in parallel with the assimilation of the meaning of various phenomena of life, our attitude towards them, as a result of careful reading and work on creative imagination.

Sharing our thoughts, telling our interlocutors about the case, event that excited us, we draw with our voice the behavior of people, pictures of nature, the interior and strive to evoke in the listeners the appropriate visions and a certain assessment of what they saw. At the same time, regardless of whether we look at them or not, they are still in the field of our attention. We always feel their mood, their response, which influence the course of our story, stimulate or inhibit it.

Thus, subtext and ví denia- the fruit of the creative development of the text, as a result of which it becomes extremely understandable, close and exciting. Subtext is conveyed by intonation. The intonation is born in verbal action, that is, the purposeful pronunciation of individual sentences, phrases.

Summing up the description of the expressiveness of speech, this most important communicative speech quality, it must be emphasized that it can be achieved only if certain conditions.

The first one is independence of thought. The second condition is the indifferent attitude of the author to what he speaks and writes about. The third condition is command of speech(intonation) and good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities.

Good knowledge of the language implies the possession of not only such communicative qualities of speech as correctness, richness and expressiveness, but also purity of speech.

Expressiveness of speech- these are features that help maintain the attention and interest of the listener: features of pronunciation, intonation, accents, etc.

Depending on the techniques that are used to attract the attention of listeners, there are pronunciation, accentological, lexical, intonational and stylistic (or stylistic) expressiveness.

Expressiveness of speech depends on the independence of the speaker's thinking, his interest in what he says. An important role in the expressiveness of speech is played by knowledge of the language; properties and features of language styles: artistic, scientific, business, journalistic, colloquial; possession of the expressive possibilities of the language, the speech skills of the speaker.

It is very important to create expressiveness intonation. Intonation allows you to express the logical meaning of the statement, to focus on more important points, which helps the listeners to correctly perceive the text.

Equally important is the quality of communication speeches like her relevance. The speech should be “appropriate”: correspond to the topic of conversation and the chosen audience. The relevance of speech is expressed in the target setting of the statement, in the adequacy of the language means used.

There are several types of relevance: stylistic, contextual, situational, personal-psychological.

The main task of all communicative qualities of speech is to ensure the effectiveness of speech.

Expressiveness (beauty) of speech is a very multifaceted concept, it is a set of features of speech that maintain the attention and interest of listeners. Expressiveness is based on richness, it is achieved by using expressions in speech that avoid routine, unexpected turns.

We can say that expressive speech is emotional speech. The speaker must influence not only the mind, but also the feelings, the imagination of the listeners. The imagery and emotionality of speech enhance its effectiveness, contribute to its better perception, understanding and memorization, and provide aesthetic pleasure. But this statement can be refuted - unemotional speech can also be expressive, and a speaker who speaks in an even voice, without betraying his emotions in any way, can make a greater impression than a joker and joker.

The expressiveness of speech, as well as its richness, is the fruit of great labor. Gustave Flaubert ensured that he did not repeat the same word even on adjacent pages, for this he rewrote each page 5-7 times. Successful is only that impromptu, which is carefully prepared.

The expressiveness of speech is supported by special language and speech means of expressiveness, which include tropes and rhetorical figures. The purpose of these language tools is to make the thought more vivid, accurate, memorable. It is known that a catchy phrase affects the listener more than a deep thought. For example, the words of the poet N.A. Nekrasova: “Follow the rule stubbornly: so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious.” Beautifully said, but if you think about it carefully, this advice will seem strange: it is crowded when there is too much of something, and spacious when there is too little of something, i.e. it is recommended to write in such a way that there are fewer thoughts and more words.

The expressiveness of speech is understood as such features of its structure that make it possible to enhance the impression of what is said (written), to arouse and maintain the attention and interest of the addressee, to influence not only his mind, but also feelings, imagination.

The expressiveness of speech depends on many reasons and conditions - proper linguistic and extralinguistic.

One of the main conditions of expressiveness is the independence of thinking of the author of the speech, which implies a deep and comprehensive knowledge and understanding of the subject of the message. Knowledge extracted from any sources must be mastered, processed, deeply comprehended. This gives the speaker (writer) confidence, makes his speech convincing, effective. If the author does not properly think over the content of his statement, does not comprehend the issues that he will present, his thinking cannot be independent, and his speech cannot be expressive.

To a large extent, the expressiveness of speech also depends on the attitude of the author to the content of the statement. The inner conviction of the speaker (writer) in the significance of the statement, interest, indifference to its content gives speech (especially oral) emotional coloring. An indifferent attitude to the content of the statement leads to a dispassionate presentation of the truth, which cannot affect the feelings of the addressee.

In direct communication, the relationship between the speaker and the listener is also essential, the psychological contact between them, which arises primarily on the basis of joint mental activity: the sender and addressee must solve the same problems, discuss the same questions: the first - setting out the topic of his message, the second - following behind the development of his thought. In establishing psychological contact, it is important to relate to the subject of speech of both the speaker and the listener, their interest, indifference to the content of the statement.

In addition to a deep knowledge of the subject of the message, the expressiveness of speech also implies the ability to convey knowledge to the addressee, to arouse his interest and attention. This is achieved by careful and skillful selection of language means, taking into account the conditions and tasks of communication, which in turn requires a good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities and features of functional styles.

One of the prerequisites for speech expressiveness is skills that allow you to easily choose the language tools you need in a particular act of communication. Such skills are developed as a result of systematic and conscious training. The means of training speech skills is attentive reading of exemplary texts (fiction, journalistic, scientific), close interest in their language and style, attentive attitude to the speech of people who can speak expressively, as well as self-control (the ability to control and analyze one’s speech from the point of view of its expressiveness). ).

The speech expressiveness of an individual also depends on the conscious intention to achieve it, on the author's target setting on it.

The expressive means of language usually include tropes (figurative use of language units) and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means. However, the expressive possibilities of the language are not limited to this; in speech, any unit of the language of all its levels (even a single sound), as well as non-verbal means (gestures, facial expressions, pantomime) can become a means of expressiveness.

Tropes are words and expressions used not in the usual, direct sense, but in a figurative sense. The path is based on a comparison of phenomena that are similar in some way or in some way connected, correlated with each other. Tropes include: metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, comparisons, epithets.

Metaphors are based on the transfer of names by similarity. They are formed according to the principle of personification (water runs), reification (nerves of steel), distraction (field of activity), etc. Quite often, metaphors are also used in everyday speech. Often we hear and say: it's raining, hours of steel, iron character, warm relationships, sharp eyesight. However, these metaphors have lost their figurativeness and are everyday in nature.

The use of metaphors does not always make speech artistic. Sometimes speakers get carried away with metaphors. “Too brilliant style,” wrote Aristotle, “makes both characters and thoughts invisible.”

The variety of metaphors distracts listeners from the content of the speech, the attention of the audience is concentrated on the form of presentation, and not on the content.

Metonymy, unlike metaphor, is based on contiguity. If, in a metaphor, two identically named objects, phenomena should be somewhat similar to each other, then in metonymy, two objects, phenomena that have received the same name, must be adjacent. The word adjacent in this case should be understood not just as neighboring, but somewhat broader - closely related to each other. Examples of metonymy are the use of the words class, school, audience, apartment, house, factory to refer to people.

Synecdoche is a trope, the essence of which is that the part is called instead of the whole, the singular is used instead of the plural, or, conversely, the whole is instead of the part, the plural is instead of the singular.

An example of synecdoche is the emotional, figurative, deep in content words of M.A. Sholokhov about the character of the Russian people. Using the word man and his own name Ivan, the writer means the whole people:

The symbolic Russian Ivan is this: a man dressed in a gray overcoat, who without hesitation gave the last piece of bread and front-line thirty grams of sugar to a child orphaned in the terrible days of the war, a man who selflessly covered his comrade with his body, saving him from inevitable death, a man who, gritting his teeth, endured and will endure all the hardships and hardships, going on a feat in the name of the Motherland. Good name Ivan!

Allegory is an allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. This technique is especially actively used in fables and fairy tales. With the help of images of animals, various human vices (greed, cowardice, cunning, stupidity, ignorance) are ridiculed, goodness, courage, and justice are glorified. So, in folk tales, the fox is an allegory of cunning, the hare is cowardice, the donkey is stubbornness, etc. Allegory allows you to better understand this or that idea of ​​the speaker, to delve into the essence of the statement, to more clearly present the subject of the conversation.

Quite often, geographical names are used in a metonymic sense. For example, the names of capitals are used in the meaning of “government of the country”, “ruling circles”: Negotiations between London and Washington, Paris is worried, Warsaw has made a decision, etc. Geographical names also denote people living in this territory. Thus, the name Belarus is synonymous with the combination of the Belarusian people, Ukraine - the Ukrainian people.

Comparison is a figurative expression built on a comparison of two objects or states that have a common feature. Comparison presupposes the presence of three data: firstly, object 1, which is compared with object 2, secondly, object 2, with which object 1 is compared, and, thirdly, a feature on the basis of which two objects are compared. With the help of comparison, the speaker highlights, emphasizes an object or phenomenon, pays special attention to it. Comparison will be effective only when the eye is organically connected with the content, when it does not obscure the thought, but explains it, makes it simpler. The power of comparison is in its originality, unusualness, and this is achieved by bringing objects, phenomena or actions that seem to , have nothing in common with each other.

Vivid, expressive comparisons give speech a special poetic quality. A completely different impression is produced by comparisons, which, as a result of their frequent use, have lost their figurativeness and turned into speech clichés. It is unlikely that such common expressions will evoke positive emotions in anyone: brave as a lea, cowardly as a hare, reflected as in a mirror, run like a red thread, etc.

The disadvantage is the use of comparison for the sake of comparison. Then the speech becomes ornate, artificial, stretched.

Epithets are artistic definitions. They allow you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of an object or phenomenon and thereby enrich the content of the statement. Pay attention to what expressive epithets A.E. Fersman to describe the beauty and splendor of green stones:

A brightly colorful emerald, sometimes thick, almost dark, cut with cracks, sometimes sparkling with bright dazzling green, comparable only to the stones of Colombia; bright golden "chrysolite" of the Urals, that beautiful sparkling demantoid stone, which was so valued abroad - traces of which were found in the ancient excavations of Ecbatana and Persia. A whole gamut of tones connects slightly greenish or bluish beryls with the densely green dark aquamarines of the Ilmensky mines, and no matter how rare these stones are, their beauty is unparalleled.

In order to draw the attention of the listener, the reader to one or another member of the sentence, a variety of permutations are used, up to placing the predicate in the declarative sentence at the very beginning of the phrase, and the subject at the end. For example: The hero of the day was honored by the whole team; As difficult as it is, we must do it.

Often, to strengthen the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm, they resort to such a stylistic figure as repetition. Repetitions come in a variety of forms. Sometimes several sentences begin with the same word or group of words. Such a repetition is called an anaphora, which in Greek means monogamy.

Sometimes whole sentences are repeated several times in order to emphasize, highlight, make more visual the core thought contained in them.

There are also repetitions at the end of the phrase. As at the beginning of a sentence, individual words, phrases, speech constructions can be repeated. Such a stylistic figure is called an epiphora.

To know the expressive means of the language, to be able to use its stylistic and semantic riches in all their structural diversity - every native speaker should strive for this.

To find (find) a common language - to achieve, achieve complete mutual understanding, understand each other. For example, a mother says to her son: “Well done, son, you are great at finding a common language with your peers!”.

To give free rein to the language - to chat, to allow yourself to speak too much. As an example, one can imagine a situation when, being at a solemn event, a woman says to her husband: “Darling, in my opinion you have given vent to your language too much, behave yourself!”.

To speak different languages ​​is not to understand each other, to understand the essence of the conversation subjectively, in your own way, not like the other interlocutor. For example, when people quarreled, they say: “You and I speak different languages!”.

Aesopian language is an allegory, a figurative language, an allegorical, allegorical language that requires deciphering because of the many hints and omissions. On behalf of the legendary fabulist Aesop (c. VI century BC), first a slave and then a freedman. Aesop in his fables resorted to numerous allegory, to an allegorical depiction of reality. The very concept and techniques of the Aesopian (Aesopian) language were introduced into wide use by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, who called the allegorical presentation also a "slave" manner, necessary in the conditions of tsarist censorship. Here is a situation that can be characterized by the methods of "Aesopian language" - the boss says to his subordinate: "Igor, this year you worked like an ant, so I think you deserve a promotion!" Here, the comparison of Igor with an ant acts as a technique of the “Aesopian language”, meaning that he worked as hard, industriously as an ant, and we all know that ants are considered the most industrious insects.

The concept of expressiveness of speech

The expressiveness of speech is given by various units of the language of all its levels.

Sound expressiveness in speech lies in its harmonious harmony, in the use of rhythm, rhyme. Alliteration and assonance also add expressiveness.

Definition 2

Alliteration is the repetition of the same or similar consonants.

Definition 3

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds.

The main source of expressiveness of speech is vocabulary and phraseology, which give speech a special expressive coloring.

expressiveness means in speech expressiveness.

To give expressiveness to the usual meaning of the word, special stylistic assessments are added that enhance its expressiveness. For example, to give expressiveness to the word good, more expressive adjectives are used, such as beautiful, delicious, and others. In this case lexical meaning words are further complicated by expression. One neutral word can have several expressive synonyms, which differ in the degree of expressive tension.

Expressive coloring is superimposed on the emotional and evaluative meaning of the word. At the same time, expression prevails in some words, while in others, on the contrary, emotional coloring.

Ways to give expression to speech

Expressive vocabulary is classified into the following groups:

• words that express a positive assessment of concepts;
• words that express a negative evaluation of concepts.

The first group includes sublime, playful, affectionate words, and the second group includes ironic, abusive, disapproving words.

We use words in our speech, obeying the conditions of communication, trying to influence the interlocutor, while taking into account his social position, the nature of the relationship and the content of the conversation. All this tells us what words we need to use in speech: sublime, reduced, solemn, playful. Accordingly, our speech acquires a certain stylistic coloring. Sometimes, it is possible to combine in speech stylistically heterogeneous and contrasting language means in terms of emotionally expressive coloring.

Used to create contrast antonyms. They serve as the basis of a stylistic figure, which is built on the opposition of words with opposite meanings. For example, the phrase "... Know where the light is, you will understand where the darkness is ...".

Definition 4

The opposition of antonyms is called antithesis.

In antithesis concepts that are not antonyms outside the general context can be compared. For example, lines from a famous poem: “... We will not drink from one glass, neither we water, nor sweet wine ...”

Combinations of antonyms form a stylistic figure - oxymoron, which consists in attributing to the concept of a sign incompatible with the given concept, at the same time in a combination of concepts that are opposite in meaning. Vivid examples of an oxymoron are the expressions: "living corpse" or "hurry slowly." An oxymoron makes it possible to characterize the complexity and internal inconsistency of an object or phenomenon with minimal language means.

Have great expressiveness paronyms. They give speech humor, satire, shades of irony. For example, the expression: "more beauty than beauty."

Lexical repetitions also enhance the expressiveness of our speech. They help to highlight important concepts in the text, provide an opportunity to delve deeper into the content, give the speech a special emotionally expressive coloring.

The source of expressiveness of speech is phraseological combinations. They are characterized by figurativeness, emotionality and expressiveness. Phraseologisms allow not only to name an object or phenomenon, but to express a certain attitude towards it. An example is the phrase: "Poverty is not a vice, but a great beastliness." Phraseologisms can enter into synonymous relations with each other.

Another catalyst for expressiveness of speech - trails.

Main trails

Definition 5

Trope- this is the transfer of the name, the use of individual words and their combinations for the name of another object in a certain speech situation.

Trails include:

• metaphor,
• metonymy,
• synecdoche,
• personification,
• comparison,
• allegory,
• epithet,
• hyperbola,
• litotes,
• antonomasia,
• paraphrase.

Metaphor- this is the use of the word in a figurative sense, when comparing objects.

A kind of metaphor metaphorical epithet, which is an artistic definition to emphasize the essential property or quality of an object, phenomenon. For example: "... How greedily the world of the soul at night listens to the story of his beloved ..."

Very much like a metaphor - a comparison. Comparison is a comparison of phenomena, to explain one of them with the help of another.

Often, in order to make speech expressive, human properties are transferred to animals, objects or phenomena of inanimate nature. This approach is called personification. For example: it is raining, the birches are crying.

Metonymy- this is the transfer of the meaning of the word by adjacency or contiguity. For example, expressions: ate two plates, the whole city was asleep.

Synecdoche- a kind of metonymy. Synecdoche is the replacement of the singular with the plural, the use of the name of the part instead of the whole, and the particular instead of the general.

Expressive speech is impossible without the use of hyperbole. Hyperbola- Figurative exaggeration of the meaning of something. Examples of hyperbole: "... And the mountain of bloody bodies prevented the nuclei from flying..."

The concept of the inverse of hyperbole is litote. Litotes- This is a figurative understatement of the significance of a phenomenon.

paraphrase used instead of any phrase or word. For example: the author of "Fathers and Sons" or "the king of beasts." In the first case, a logical paraphrase is used, and in the second, a figurative one.

Irony belongs to the paths. Irony- this is a special use of words, phrases or sentences and pieces of text in the opposite sense with respect to the literal. You can understand the ironic coloring of the text through knowledge of the situation, cultural traditions, as well as through intonational or other ways of emphasizing the opposite meaning of the statement by the narrator.

Allegory is an expression of abstract concepts in concrete images. For example, a fox is cunning, and a snake is deceit.

Another trope that gives brightness to our speech - antonomasia. When proper names are used in the meaning of a common word.

Expressiveness of speech- this is a quality that can maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader, influence not only the mind, but also feelings, imagination. Expressive speech enhances the effectiveness of the impact of the speech on the addressee.

There are different approaches to describing this quality. Scientists believe that expressiveness can be created by means of the language of all its levels. First of all, the phonetic side of speech contributes to the creation of expressiveness: diction (clear pronunciation of sounds), voice (strength, tempo, timbre), intonation (pitch, pauses).

The traditional linguistic basis of expressiveness is the presence in the language of figurative and expressive means of the lexical level (tropes) and the syntactic level (stylistic figures).

trails- these are words and turns of speech used in a figurative sense, naming one object (phenomenon, process, property) to designate another.

The main types of trails: epithet, comparison, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbola, litotes, personification, allegory, paraphrase.

Epithet(from Greek epitheton - application). Artistic, figurative definition, type of trail. Cheerful wind, dead silence, gray-haired antiquity, black melancholy. With a broad interpretation, an epithet is called not only an adjective that defines a noun, but also a noun-application, as well as an adverb that metaphorically defines a verb. Frost-voivode, tramp-wind, old man-ocean; proudly flies Petrel(Bitter); Petrograd lived in these January nights tensely, agitatedly, viciously, furiously.(A.N. Tolstoy). Permanent epithet. An epithet often found in folk poetry, passing from one work to another. The sea is blue, the field is clear, the sun is red, the clouds are black, a good fellow, the grass is green, the girl is red.

Comparison. Trope, consisting in the likening of one object to another on the basis of a common feature they have. Comparison is expressed: a) instrumental case. Snow dust is in the air(Gorbatov);

b) the form of the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb. You are sweeter than everyone, dearer than everyone, Russian, loamy, hard earth(Surkov); c) turns with comparative unions. Below, like a steel mirror, lakes of jets turn blue(Tyutchev). Whiter, there are snowy mountains, clouds go to the west(Lermontov). The moon rose very crimson and gloomy, as if sick(Chekhov); d) lexically (using words similar, similar etc.). Her love for her son was like madness(Bitter). Pyramidal poplars look like mourning cypresses(Serafimovich).

Metaphor(gr. metaphor - transfer). The use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena. "Noble Nest"(direct meaning of the word nest- “bird dwelling”, figuratively - “human community”), aircraft wing(cf.: bird wing), golden autumn(cf.: gold chain). Unlike a two-term comparison, in which both what is being compared and what is being compared is given, a metaphor contains only the second, which creates compactness and figurativeness of the use of words. Metaphor is one of the most common tropes, since the similarity between objects or phenomena can be based on a variety of features. The prow of a ship, the leg of a table, the dawn of life, the flow of speech, a steel pen, a clock hand, a doorknob, a piece of paper.

Metonymy(gr. metonymia - renaming). The use of the name of one object instead of the name of another object on the basis of an external or internal connection between them; kind of trail. The connection can be: a) between the object and the material from which the object is made. Not on silver- ate on gold(Griboyedov); b) between content and containing. Well, eat another plate, my dear(Krylov); c) between the action and the instrument of this action. The pen of his revenge breathes(A.K. Tolstoy); d) between the author and his work. I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero(Pushkin); e) between a place and people in that place. But our open bivouac was quiet(Lermontov).

Synecdoche(gr. synekdoche - connotation). One of the tropes, a type of metonymy (see this term in alphabetical order), consisting in the transfer of meaning from one subject to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Synecdoche is an expressive means of typification. The following types of synecdoche are most commonly used:

a) a part of the phenomenon is called in the sense of the whole:

And at the door

jackets,

overcoats,

Sheeps...

(Mayakovsky);

b) the whole in the meaning of the part:

- Oh, how are you! Fight with a helmet? Well, isn't it mean people! (Twardowski);

c) the singular in the meaning of the general and even universal:

There a man groans from slavery and chains...

(Lermontov);

d) replacement of a number by a set:

Millions of us. Us - darkness, And darkness, and darkness. (Block);

e) replacement of a specific concept by a generic one:

"Well, sit down, luminary!"(Mayakovsky).

Hyperbola. A figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of the size, strength, value, etc. of any object, phenomenon. By means of hyperbole, the author enhances the desired impression or emphasizes what he glorifies and what he ridicules. In artistic speech, hyperbole is often intertwined with other means - metaphors, personifications, comparisons, etc. In a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned(Mayakovsky).

Litotes(gr. litotes - simplicity, smallness, moderation). Trope opposite hyperbole(cm.). Litota is a figurative expression, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength, significance of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota is in folk tales: a boy with a finger, a little man with a fingernail. Below a thin bylinochka, you need to bow your head(Nekrasov).

personification (gr. prosopopoieia, from prosopon - face + poieo - I do). The trope, which consists in the fact that an inanimate object, an abstract concept, a living being not endowed with consciousness, are attributed qualities or actions inherent in a person - the gift of speech, the ability to think and feel. Personification is one of the oldest tropes, owing its origin to the animalistic worldview and all kinds of religious beliefs; occupies a large place in mythology, in folklore: the phenomena of nature, everyday life are personified; fantastic and zoological characters of epics, fairy tales, legends. In the modern period, it is most often found in the language of fiction: more - in poetry, to a lesser extent - in prose. Do you howl about him, night wind, do you lament so madly about him? ( Tyutchev ). Her nurse lay down beside her in the bedchamber- silence(Block). When, raging in the stormy darkness, the sea played with the shores...(Pushkin).

Allegory(Greek allegoria - allegory). Trope, which consists in the allegorical depiction of an abstract concept with the help of a specific life image. For example, in fables and fairy tales, cunning is shown in the form of a fox, greed is shown in the form of a wolf, deceit is shown in the form of a snake, etc.

Paraphrase and paraphrase. Same as paraphrase and paraphrase (from gren. paraphrasis - descriptive phrase, description). 1. An expression that is a descriptive transfer of the meaning of another expression or word. Who writes these lines(instead of "I" in the author's speech). 2. Trope, consisting in replacing the name of a person, object or phenomenon with a description of them essential features or pointing to them character traits. King of beasts(instead of "lion"). Foggy Albion(instead of "England"). Wed from Pushkin: singer Giaura and Juan(Byron) Lithuanian singer(Mickiewicz), creator of Macbeth(Shakespeare).

Paths perform the following functions: they make speech attractive, emotional, visual, allow you to better understand the internal state of a person, and contribute to the original reflection of reality.

Figures of speech- special forms of syntactic constructions that enhance the impact of speech on the addressee.

There are the following types of stylistic figures: anaphora, epiphora, inversion, parallelism, antithesis, oxymoron, gradation, parceling. In the practice of oratory, special figures have also been developed that are used to dialogize monologue speech, attracting the attention of the listener: a rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, question-answer move.

Anaphora(Greek anaphora - bringing up). A stylistic figure consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the beginning of each parallel row (verse, stanza, prose passage): Repetition of the same combinations of sounds: Thunderstorm demolished bridges, Coffins from a blurry cemetery.

(Pushkin). Repetition of the same morphemes or parts of compound words: ... Black-eyed girl, Black-maned horse!(Lermontov). Repetition of the same words: Not in vain the winds were blowing, the storm was not in vain.(Yesenin). Repetition of the same syntactic constructions: Do I wander along the noisy streets, Do I enter a crowded temple, I'm sitting between foolish youths; I surrender to my dreams.

(Pushkin). Anaphora is widely used when constructing a period whose members (sentences included in the increase or decrease) begin with the same functional words. For example: Few Togo that I am condemned to such a terrible fate; little of that before her end she must see how her father and mother will die in inexpressible torment, for the salvation of which she would be ready to give her life twenty times,- little of everything this: it is necessary that before my end I should have a chance to see and hear words and love, which I have not seen(Gogol).

Epiphora(gr. epiphora from epi - after + phoros - bearing). A stylistic figure opposite to anaphora, consisting in the repetition of the same elements at the end of each parallel row (verse, stanza, sentence, etc.). I would like to know why I titular adviser? Why exactly titular councilor ? (Gogol).

Dear friend, and in this quiet house

The fever hits me.

Can't find a place for me quiet house

Near peaceful fire!(Block)

Inversion(lat. inversio - permutation, reversal). The arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the usual (direct) order, in order to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Inversion is one of the stylistic figures. Bear hunting is dangerous, a wounded beast is terrible, but the soul of a hunter, accustomed to dangers from childhood, swept away(Koptyaeva) (inversion of the main members of the sentence). The moon came out on a dark night, looking lonely from a black cloud at deserted fields, at distant villages, at nearby villages.(Neverov) (inversion of agreed definitions). At first I was very upset(Pushkin) (inversion of the circumstance of measure and degree). Inversion is associated not only with a change in the position of the correlative members of the sentence between them, but also with the place of the word in the sentence. The most advantageous position is that member of the sentence that is brought to its beginning (unless this place is usual for him) or, on the contrary, is moved to the end of the sentence, especially if something new is reported at the absolute end of the sentence. Helped them pure chance(subject inverted). I don't hope I'm on his neatness(predicate inverted). Behind Motherland partisan heroes fought(complement inverted). The story he wrote wonderful (definition inverted). With joy received this message(the circumstance of the mode of action is inverted).

Inversion is widely used in the language of fiction as an expressive stylistic means. Compare the inversion of the subject, predicate, object, definition and circumstance in the sentences below. Seahorses are much more interesting.(Kataev). His sharpness and subtlety of instinct struck me.(Pushkin). It was annoying, they were waiting for the battle(Lermontov). A dazzlingly bright flame escaped from the furnace(Gladkov). They all agreed to behave kindly with her in the presence of Stepan Mikhailovich.(Aksakov). Yes, we were very friendly.(L. Tolstoy). Here my friend burned with shame(Turgenev).

Parallelism(from Greek parallelos - next to walking). The same syntactic construction (the same arrangement of similar sentence members) of adjacent sentences or segments of speech. Your mind is as deep as the sea. Your spirit is as high as the mountains(Bryusov). When you walk along the snowy ridges, When you enter the clouds up to your chest, - Know how to look at the earth from a height! Don't you dare look down on the ground! (Island)

Parallelism is negative. Parallelism based on negative comparison. Not a flock of ravens flew On piles of smoldering bones, Beyond the Volga, at night, around the lights The remote gang was going.(Pushkin)

Antithesis (gr. antithesis - opposition). A stylistic figure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech by sharply contrasting concepts, thoughts, images. Where the table was food, there is a coffin(Derzhavin). Antithesis is often built on antonyms. Rich and feasts on weekdays, and the poor grieves on a holiday(proverb).

gradation(lat. gradatio - gradual increase). A stylistic figure consisting in such an arrangement of parts of a statement (words, segments of a sentence), in which each subsequent one contains an increasing (less often decreasing) semantic or emotionally expressive meaning, due to which an increase (less often weakening) of the impression they produce is created. I defeated him, crushed him, destroyed him.

Oxymoron(gr. oxymoron - witty-stupid). A stylistic figure consisting in the combination of two concepts that contradict each other, logically excluding one another, as a result of which a new semantic quality arises. An oxymoron always contains an element of surprise. Bitter joy, ringing silence, eloquent silence, sweet grief, sad joy. The title of the work is often built on an oxymoron: L. Tolstoy "Living Dead", Y. Bondarev "Hot Snow".

Parceling(goes back to French parceile from lat. particuia - particle). Such a division of a sentence, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another after a separating pause. He soon quarreled with the girl. And that's why(Ch. Uspensky). Elena is in trouble. Big(Panferov). Flerov - he can do everything. And Uncle Grisha Dunaev. And the doctor too(Bitter). Mitrofanov chuckled and stirred the coffee. squinted(N. Ilyina). Parceling is widely used in modern fiction as a means of figurativeness, a special stylistic device that allows you to enhance the semantic and expressive shades of meanings. Parceling differs from attachment in that the parceled parts are always outside the main sentence, while the connecting constructions can be both within the main sentence and outside it (in the latter case, parceling and attachment actually coincide).

A rhetorical question. The same as an interrogative-rhetorical sentence (used as a stylistic figure). A sentence containing an affirmation or negation in the form of a question that is not expected to be answered. Who is not affected by novelty?(Chekhov).

Rhetorical appeal. A stylistic figure, consisting in the fact that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person, thereby enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Dreams Dreams! Where is your sweetness? (Pushkin).

It should be borne in mind that the mentioned tropes and stylistic figures, which help to make speech expressive, figurative, emotional, are good only if they are appropriate in a particular situation, skillfully used, allow achieving the goals of communication, and increase the effectiveness of communication.

Polyunion (polysyndeton)- a stylistic figure, consisting in a deliberate increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members, due to which the role of each of them is emphasized, the unity of the enumeration is created, and the expressiveness of speech is enhanced. For example: The ocean was moving before my eyes, and it swayed, and thundered, and sparkled, and faded, and shone, and went somewhere to infinity.

Ellipsis(from the Greek elleipsis - omission, lack) - a stylistic figure, consisting in the omission (in speech or text) of any implied member of the sentence (language unit) and giving speech dynamism, liveliness. For example: An order was given to him to the west, to her in the other direction.; Tanya - 5, and Valya - 3; My mother is a doctor.

The expressiveness of speech can be safely equated with its richness, beauty inner world person. After all, the breadth of his knowledge is represented precisely by his vocabulary and by how skillfully he uses various stable combinations, stylistic figures, etc., in his speeches.

The main means of expressiveness of speech

In order to give speech brilliance, brightness, liveliness, greater expressiveness, the following methods are used:

1. Synonyms. Everyone knows that they are words that are close in meaning (for example, an interlocutor is a conversationalist). What should they be used for? First of all, so that the story does not resemble something like "butter oil". Synonyms help to avoid tautology in the narrative, thus giving something a more accurate description.
2. Homonyms. A girl's braid and a braid used to cut grass. Here are vivid examples of what homonyms are (words that differ in meaning, but in spelling they are the same one to one).
3. Antonyms. They are used in case of contrasts: cold - hot, anger - joy. Thanks to them, contradictions are better depicted.
4. Archaisms. In order to give their speech some solemnity, features, phrases or words are used that have long gone out of use (get angry - get angry, little shoes - shoes).
5. Neologism. They are the opposite of the previous concept. This innovation not only adds expressiveness to speech, but also makes it clear to the interlocutor that the narrator is keeping up with the times (for example, brand, device).
6. Phraseologisms. They are expressions that are stable in composition. They cannot change the order of words or try to change the grammatical structure. They are used as a means of figurative thought (for example, "pan or gone").
7. Metaphor. This is a kind of trope, which is a secret comparison with something or someone (iron nerves, windy man).
8. personification. This method of expressiveness of speech, gives it more and more figurativeness. Here inanimate objects turn into living beings (wind howls, clouds float).
9. Hyperbola. Conscious exaggeration of the meaning of something, beauty or even size (not seeing each other for a hundred years, an ocean of tears).
10. Irony. Where in our life without irony, one of the main methods of expressiveness of speech? In order not to offend the interlocutor, but at the same time to show their attitude to what they heard, saw, this hidden mockery is used. A vivid example of this is the phrase of M. Zhvanetsky "The doctors fought so hard for her life that, alas, she was able to survive."

Intonation expressiveness of speech

It manifests itself in the pace of what is said, which is classified into fast, medium and slow. Also in voice power, speech coloring, rhythm and logical stress of the whole sentence.