Mongol invasion of Rus'. Mongol invasion of Rus' 13th century Kievan Rus

Some questions, although they sound a little different, but the meaning of the answers is conveyed as indifferently as possible, but true. The text may contain mate and other bullshit. 1

5. Formation of Kievan Rus. Norman theory. 1

6. Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus. 2

7. Foreign policy of Kievan Rus 9-13 century. 3

8. Culture of Kievan Rus. 4

9. The struggle of Rus' against the German, Swedish, Danish aggressors in the 13th century. 7

9 with Batu. The beginning of the Batu invasion of Rus'. 9

10. Economic development and the socio-politicized system of Rus' in the 13th-15th century. 10

Political system and administration. 10

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF Rus'.. 10

11. The struggle of the Russian people against the Mongol-Tatar conquerors. eleven

12. Moscow Rus in the XIV - early XVI centuries 13

13. Russia during the reign of Ivan the Terrible. 14

Main dates of the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible: 15

14. Russia in 1584-1613 15

15. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 17th century. 18

16. Popular movement led by Stepan Razin. 21

17. Foreign policy of Russia in the 17th century. 22

18. Campaign of Yermaki and other huyta in the 17th century. 23

19. Socio-economic development of Russia and reforms in the first quarter of the 18th century. 25

20. Foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the XVIII century. North War. 28

21. Russia in 1725-1762 Economic development. Domestic and foreign policy. 29

22. Palace coups (1725-1762). thirty

Some questions, although they sound a little different, but the meaning of the answers is conveyed as indifferently as possible, but true. The text may contain mate and other bullshit.

The formation of Kievan Rus. Norman theory.

1) The first state in the lands of the Eastern Slavs was called "Rus", or by the name of its capital "Kievan Rus", although it never called itself that way, simply: "Rus" or "Russian land". The first mention of the name "Rus" refers to the same time as the information about the Veneds, i.e. to 5-7 centuries.

Years pass, and the name Rus is increasingly becoming collective for all the tribes that lived in the vast expanses between the Baltic and the Black Sea. In general, by the time the united state of Kievan Rus was formed, the Eastern Slavs had gone through a great and hard way in its development - the once free hunters became sedentary farmers, among whom the ruling stratum stood out - the leaders of clans and tribes and their immediate environment. The main power and the main wealth of the community was concentrated in their hands. Territorial communities, because due to the raids of the steppes, the Slavs constantly left the fertile lands for more remote places and mixed with the local population there, sometimes returned and mixed again. As mentioned above, the Slavs were dominated by territorial communities. As a result of this, the connection between bloodlines was broken, a connection was formed between neighbors. It was this community that contributed to the formation of the state. This is how "Kiev Rus" was "built": the tribes were part of the community, and the community grew into a state. Moreover, these tribes were united not only by a common kinship, but also by a common language, similar traditions and customs, religion, culture and way of life.

2) Norman theory.

Based on the message of the chronicle about the Varangians, some scientists (both Russian and foreign) in the 18-20 centuries created and defended the so-called Norman theory of the origin of the Russian state. Its essence was that the state in Rus' was brought in from outside by invited princes, Normans and Scandinavians, i.e. carriers of Western culture. They argued that the Eastern Slavs themselves allegedly could not create a state system, which spoke of their backwardness and historical doom. Modern scientists have convincingly proved

Socio-economic and political system of Kievan Rus

Local authorities and administrations, governors

The head of state was the Grand Duke. He was the supreme commander, judge, legislator, recipient of tribute. Conducted foreign policy, declared war, made peace. Appointed officials. The power of the Grand Duke was limited to:

• Council under the prince, which included the military nobility, the elders of the cities, the clergy (since 988)
• Veche - a popular assembly in which all free people could take part. Veche could discuss and resolve any issue that interested him.
• Specific princes - local tribal nobility.

The first rulers of Kievan Rus were: Oleg (882-912), Igor (913-945), Olga - Igor's wife (945-964).

1. The unification of all East Slavic and part of the Finnish tribes under the rule of the great Kievan prince.

2. The acquisition of overseas markets for Russian trade and the protection of trade routes that led to these markets.

3. Protection of the borders of the Russian land from the attacks of the steppe nomads (Khazars, Pechenegs, Polovtsians).

The most important source of income for the prince and the squad was the tribute paid by the conquered tribes. Olga streamlined the collection of tribute and set its size.

The son of Igor and Olga - Prince Svyatoslav (964-972) made trips to the Danube Bulgaria and Byzantium, and also defeated the Khazar Khaganate.

Under the son of Svyatoslav - Vladimir the Holy (980-1015) in 988, Christianity was adopted in Rus'.

Socio-economic system:

The main branch of the economy is arable farming and cattle breeding. Additional industries: fishing, hunting. Rus' was a country of cities (more than 300) - in the XII century.

Kievan Rus reached its peak under Yaroslav the Wise (1019-1054). He intermarried and made friends with the most prominent states of Europe. In 1036, he defeated the Pechenegs near Kiev and ensured the security of the eastern and southern borders of the state for a long time. In the Baltic states, he founded the city of Yuryev (Tartu) and established the position of Rus' there. Under him, writing and literacy spread in Rus', schools were opened for the children of the boyars. The higher school was located in the Kiev-Pechersk monastery. The largest library was in St. Sophia Cathedral, also built under Yaroslav the Wise.

Under Yaroslav the Wise appeared the first set of laws in Rus' - "Russian Truth", which operated during the XI-XIII centuries. 3 editions of Russkaya Pravda are known:

1. Brief truth of Yaroslav the Wise

2. Spacious (grandchildren of Yar. the Wise - Vl. Monomakh)

3. abbreviated

Russkaya Pravda consolidated the feudal property that was taking shape in Rus', established severe penalties for attempts to encroach on it, and defended the lives and privileges of members of the ruling class. According to Russkaya Pravda, one can trace the contradictions in society and the class struggle. Russkaya Pravda by Yaroslav the Wise allowed blood feuds, but the article on blood feuds was limited to defining the exact circle of close relatives who have the right to take revenge: father, son, brother, cousin, nephew. Thus, the end of the endless chain of murders that exterminate entire families was set.

In Pravda Yaroslavichi (with the children of Yar. the Wise), blood feud is already prohibited, and instead a fine for murder has been introduced, depending on the social status of the murdered, from 5 to 80 hryvnias.

Society in Kievan Rus was divided into free, semi-free and dependent.

Free population: nobility, combatants, clergy, merchants, artisans, smerds (free peasants).

Semi-free population: purchases, rank and file. A purchase was a person who took a kupa from the landowner - a piece of land, a cash loan, seeds, and was obliged to return or work with interest. Ryadovich is a person who has concluded a certain agreement with the feudal lord - a series and is obliged to perform various works according to this series.

Dependent population: slaves, who were called serfs or servants. First of all, captives fell into slavery; for debts; marriage to a slave or slave; born of a slave. There were also outcasts - people who lost their social status (for example, community members who left the community, serfs released into the wild, etc.)

Since the great Kievan prince gave out land to combatants for service, the combatants gradually turn into landowners-boyars (feudal lords). The basic unit of the feudal economy was fiefdom. The votchina consisted of a princely or boyar estate and communities-vervey dependent on it (verv is one or several small settlements). The patrimonial economy was inherited and had a natural character. At the head of the patrimonial administration was fireman. Various industries farms were managed by special managers - tiunas and keys.

The development of feudal relations was accompanied by class struggle. It was expressed in the following forms:

• Escapes dependent people from their masters
• Arson
• Robbery, robbery
• An attempt on the life of representatives of the patrimonial administration and the feudal lords themselves
• Heresy. Under the guise of protecting the pagan religion, the common people opposed Christianization and the church, which itself was a major feudal lord.

Suppressing the protest of the enslaved peasants, the prince relied on the squad, the administration, the church and the court (laws).

Foreign policy of Kievan Rus 9th-13th century

The object of the foreign policy of the princes was all matters related to dynastic relations, issues of war and peace, foreign trade, the attitude of the Grand Duke and his state to foreign religious organizations. All these problems required the personal participation of the head of state, because the affairs of the dynasty, military affairs, taxes, like the rest of the treasury, were concentrated in the hands of the prince. At the same time, since all these issues were largely related to personal matters (marriage, inheritance, donation) or required only a personal decision of the prince (war, the acquisition of weapons abroad, the release of money from the treasury for this) and, moreover, by their nature, they should have to be secret, secret, the conduct of foreign policy, diplomacy inevitably from the very first days of its inception acquired a strictly secret character, narrow in terms of circle of persons. Almost all cases were decided by the prince in council with two or three especially close people. Most sources prove that this circle of people changed, was unofficial, everything depended on the personality of its participants, on the degree of their personal talent, influence and practical significance for this or that prince whom they served, and not on their nominal position and position at court .

Kievan Rus' had foreign policy relations with three types of states during its existence:

1. Russian independent or specific and related (dynastic) dependent on the Grand Duke of the Kyiv principality and land.

2. Non-Russians public entities and the lands that were the closest neighbors of Kievan Rus, bordering on it, entering into wars, alliances, and contractual relations with it.

3. Western European states that did not have direct borders with Kievan Rus.

Thus, Kievan Rus had complex relations with almost four dozen foreign policy objects. This purely quantitative fact alone shows that at the very moment of its inception and organization, Russian foreign policy inevitably had to face complex, often contradictory tasks. This could not affect the fact that, as a result of many mistakes, Russian foreign policy developed its main tactical rule: to be careful, try not to rush to choose friends and enemies, instill in their leaders a sense of distrust and alertness. The concentration of all foreign policy, its leadership in the hands of one person - the Grand Duke - created favorable conditions for strengthening the tactics of caution, provided the greatest secret, surprise of all the most important decisions of the head of state. And this was a huge advantage of the Kyiv princes over other European monarchs.

According to Pokhlebkin V.V., the following periods can be distinguished in the foreign policy of the princes of Kievan Rus:

1. From Rurik to Yaroslav the Wise (862 - 1054) The period of a completely personal, dynastic foreign policy, the main feature of which is the accumulation of land, the expansion of the state at the expense of internal resources - the lot of weakened and impoverished princes - relatives of the Grand Duke.

2. From Yaroslav the Wise to Vladimir Monomakh (1054 - 1125) The period of stabilization of foreign policy advances, the period of consolidating the successes of foreign policy and protecting other Rurikovichs, appanage princes from interference in it, attempts to defend and canonize the individuality of the foreign policy line as a personal policy prince, or at least as a single national policy.

3. From Mstislav I to Daniil Romanovich of Galicia (1126 - 1237) The period of defensive foreign policy, the main task of which is to preserve the gains of previous centuries, to prevent the strengthening of regional principalities from weakening the Kiev state. During this period, the weakened Kyiv princes had to share their monopoly on foreign policy with their relatives, the Monomakhoviches. And it leads to the fact that the continuity of the foreign policy line, which was preserved during the personal foreign policy of the prince, disappears. The often replaced, ruling for a year or two, the Grand Dukes can no longer see foreign policy prospects. As a result, at the first strong external pressure of the Tatar-Mongols, the whole of Rus' falls apart.

Pokhlebkin compiled a chronological list of princes - leaders of the foreign policy of Kievan Rus (Appendix 7).

Beginning in 1125, a new dynasty, the Vladimirovichs-Monomakhoviches (semi-Scandinavian), was established on the throne of Kiev. The impact of the Grand Dukes on foreign policy after Vladimir Monomakh is weakening. The reason is not only the short tenure of the princes in their positions, but also the need to reckon with the opinion of the entire Monomakhovich clan. The desire for "equality" in power leads to a fall in authority, to the impossibility of solving big matters of foreign policy. Along with the liquidation of the (political) independence of Kievan Rus, its independent foreign policy, which was determined in the Horde by the great khan, was also liquidated.

However, the very state unity of Rus' was not strong. Signs of the fragility of unity were revealed after the death of Svyatoslav, when the young Yaropolk took power in Kyiv. Yaropolk relied on the Varangians - mercenaries hired by his father. The Varangians behaved arrogantly. The second son of Svyatoslav Oleg began a fight with them and sought to replenish his squad with peasants - Oleg died in this strife, but Vladimir (3rd son) began to reign over the walls of Kiev. After the death of Grand Duke Vladimir in 1015, difficult times came for Rus': his sons (there are 12 of them) began lengthy strife, in which Pechenegs, Poles, and Varangian detachments were involved. Warriors violated the barely - barely established order in the state. The year 1073 came, and a new internecine struggle. This time, feuds took place between the sons of Yaroslav the Wise. If Yaroslav the Wise managed to maintain the unity of Rus' for a long time, then it turned out to be more difficult for his sons and grandsons to do this. This is due to many reasons.

Firstly, the order of succession to the throne established by Yaroslav turned out to be unsuccessful. The sons of the deceased Grand Duke did not want to give power to their elders, their uncles, and they did not let their nephews into power, putting their sons in their place, although they were younger.

Secondly, among the successors of Yaroslav the Wise, there was no purposeful and strong-willed personality, such as Vladimir I and Yaroslav himself.

Thirdly, large cities and lands were gaining strength. The emergence of large patrimonial farms, including church estates, contributed to the overall progress of economic life and the desire for independence from Kyiv.

Fourthly, the constant interference of the Polovtsy in the internal affairs of Rus'.

In 1068, when the Polovtsian Khan Shakuran invaded Russian lands, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise took refuge in their fortresses. The people of Kiev overthrew Izyaslav and proclaimed the Polovtsian prince Vseslav to the throne, who left a grateful memory for seven years. Having expelled Vseslav, the Yaroslavichi continued to quarrel among themselves for eight years. During these years, popular uprisings broke out in the Volga region and in the distant Belozero, in Rostov land, Novgorod against the feudal nobility, which increased taxes: vira and sales (court fees), food (delivery for officials). Since the anti-feudal movements were also directed against the Church, the Magi sometimes turned out to be at the head of the rebels. The movement took the form of being anti-Christian, appealing to the return of the old pagan religion. Since 1125, after the death of Monomakh, the son of Monomakh, nicknamed the Great, was established on the throne of Kiev. He ruled Russia as menacingly as his father. Under him, the Polotsk Vseslavichs were expelled from their possessions. Due to internal strife, the Chernigov Svyatoslavichs weakened: Muromo - Ryazan land separated from Chernigov. None of the princes dared to confront Mstislav. But after his death in 1132, strife began already among the descendants of Monomakh. The Olegovichs immediately took advantage of this, and the relative calm in Rus' came to an end. The fragmentation of Rus' has become a fact.

Thus, we can conclude that after the death of Svyatoslav, a new political situation arose in Rus': after the death of the ruler, several sons remained who shared power. The new situation gave rise to a new event - the princely strife, the purpose of which was the struggle for power. How did the strife differ from the events of the struggle between Igor, and then Olga, and the Drevlyans? The difference lies in the fact that then it could be an uprising of a whole tribe, led by its local nobility, against the central government in the person of the prince. Now it was not so much about the unity of the lands, but about which of the representatives of the ruling dynasty would rule, thus, it was about the personality of the prince.

In the works of historians, an important emphasis is placed on the role of a strong, imperious ruler, with the departure of which the state lost its unity and an internal struggle for power began.

The appearance of an energetic and strong-willed ruler once again rallied the state. This was usually done by force. Therefore, the role of the individual in the formation of the state cannot be underestimated.

Culture of Kievan Rus

Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by man in the course of his socio-historical labor practice.

The basis of the culture of Kievan Rus is the Slavic pre-Christian culture, which, with the adoption of Christianity, was influenced by Byzantium, Bulgaria, and through them the ancient and Middle Eastern cultural traditions.

One of the main indicators of the cultural level is the presence of writing. The first evidence of writing among the Slavs was found near Smolensk and speaks of its presence as early as the 10th century. (before the adoption of Christianity).

There is evidence of the adoption of the Glagolitic alphabet in Rus' in the second half of the 9th century, attempts to write in the Greek alphabet. Missionaries Cyril and Methodius in the 60s of the 9th century. saw the Gospel written in Slavic script.

Examples of the presence of writing and the spread of literacy in Rus' are birch bark letters discovered during archaeological excavations of ancient Russian cities.

In the second half of the 9th c. The monk brothers Cyril and Methodius created the Glagolitic alphabet, which was later converted to Cyrillic.

Years of government Yaroslav the Wise(1019-1054) became the time of the political and cultural flourishing of Kievan Rus.

In 1036, near the walls of Kyiv, Yaroslav finally defeated the Pechenegs, and this event was the beginning of the prosperity of the great city. In honor of the victory, the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia was erected, which, in beauty and grandeur, was not inferior to a similar cathedral in Constantinople.

Kyiv of the time of Yaroslav turned into one of the largest urban centers of the entire Christian world. “There were 400 churches in the city, the entrance to it was decorated with golden gates, there were eight markets. In order to strengthen the power of Rus', Yaroslav, without the permission of Constantinople, appointed the head of the church with his authority. Hilarion Berestov became the first Russian metropolitan.

During the reign of Yaroslav great attention was paid to education. Schools for clergy were opened in Kyiv and Novgorod. Under Yaroslav in Kyiv, the beginning of Russian chronicle writing was laid.

The first chronicle code, dating back to the end of the 11th century, reached contemporaries as part of the Novgorod Chronicle.

Metropolitan Hilarion, an associate of Yaroslav, created a monument of Russian theology, philosophy and history - "The Sermon on Law and Grace".

Rus' owes the success of enlightenment of this period to the personal merits of Yaroslav. Being a convinced Christian and an enlightened person, he gathered translators and scribes in Kyiv and started publishing Greek books brought to Rus' from Byzantium.

Thus was the process of familiarization with the culture of the ancient world and Byzantium. During this period, a national epic epic developed, which reflected the events of the reigns of Yaroslav the Wise (“Nightingale Budimirovich”) and Vladimir Monomakh (epics about Alyosha Popovich, “Stavr I Odinovich”).

An outstanding cultural achievement was the compilation of a set of written laws, which was called "Russian Truth" or "Yaroslav's Truth". The document included criminal and civil laws, established legal proceedings, determined punishments for committed offenses or crimes.

Based on this, it was possible to judge the social structure, mores and customs of the Russian society of that time.

In civil cases, Russkaya Pravda established a court of twelve electives (torture and the death penalty were absent).

Under Yaroslav, the foreign policy relations of Rus' successfully developed. The powerful monarchs of the Christian world considered it an honor to intermarry with the Rurik family.

Yaroslav's son Vsevolod became the son-in-law of the emperor of Byzantium, his daughters Anna, Anastasia and Elizabeth married the kings of France, Hungary and Norway.

Kievan Rus in the 11th century

Territorial division and state structure of Rus' in the 11th century

In the 10th century, the unification of disparate Slavic tribes into a single state began, the administrative center stood out - Kyiv. In the 11th century, this process received a new round of development, the state, formed from former tribes, was increasingly united under the rule of the center and the Kiev prince, the territories of Rus' expanded significantly, management became more centralized, and the top of society began to stand out. Despite the fact that Rus' was no longer a union of tribes, but was already a truly integral state, the population of Rus' was still quite motley - it included not only Slavic tribes, but also Finns and Balts.

Russian territory in the 11th century stretched from Lake Ladoga to the mouth of the Ros River, as well as from the right bank of the Dnieper to the Klyazma River (the city of Vladimir Zalessky and later the principality were founded there) and to the upper reaches of the Western Buta (the city of Vladimir Volynsky and the Volyn principality). Rus' also retained the territories of Tmutarakan. A difficult situation was with Galicia, where the Croats lived - these territories constantly passed from under the influence of Poland to the influence of Rus' and back. However, in general, Rus' gradually expanded and was a fairly powerful state.

Despite the fact that the diverse and ethnically diverse population has now become part of Kievan Rus, the Russian ethnos itself has only just begun to form and has not completely separated - the tribes have already begun to mix with each other, but so far there have been no stable ethnic signs. In addition, in some parts of the state, tribes still lived, which were not very willing to depart from their own traditions and beliefs and merge with the traditions that Rus' imposed. Despite the fact that most of Rus' began to culturally unite under the influence of Christianity, there were still quite a few pagans and the process of transition to a new religion was completed only in the 12th century.

The main mechanism for the unification of lands was state power and administration. The Great Prince of Kiev was considered the head of state, local princes and rulers were subordinate to him. Gradually, other state bodies began to form, such as the veche - the people's council, the gathering. Ancient Rus' was at the stage of formation of an integral state with a strong system of government.

Religion and society Ancient Rus' in the 11th century

In 988 there was Baptism of Rus' and Rus' adopted Christianity. This important event had a huge impact on everything that happened to the people in the future. Together with Christianity and Christian ideology, morality, new types of social relations began to appear, new trends, the church became a new political force. The prince became not just a steward, but a vicar of God, which meant that he had to take care not only of political life, but also of the spirituality and morality of his people.

The prince has his own squad, which serves to protect him, but gradually its functions begin to expand. The squad is divided into higher (boyars) and lower (youths). It is the retinue that in the future will form the basis of a new layer of society - the highest layer, which has certain privileges. The process of stratification in society, the emergence of the nobility begins. Rich and poor. It was in the 11th century, with the development of economic and trade relations and the growth in the number of nobility, that the basic principles of the feudal system began to take shape, which already in the 12th century would firmly establish itself as the main state system.

Russian culture in the 11th century

In culture and architecture, as in other areas of life, a new round of development is also beginning, associated with Christianization. Biblical motifs began to appear in painting, Russian icon painting appeared. Active construction of churches also begins - it was during this period that the famous St. Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv was built. In Rus', literacy, education and enlightenment began to actively spread, schools were being built.

The main events of the 11th century in Rus'

· 1017-1037 - construction of fortifications around Kyiv, the construction of St. Sophia Cathedral;

1019 - becomes the Grand Duke Yaroslav the Wise;

· 1036 - a series of successful campaigns of Yaroslav against the Pechenegs;

· 1043 - the last armed clash between Russia and Byzantium;

· 1095 - foundation of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky;

· 1096 - the first mention of Ryazan in chronicles;

1097 - Lyubech congress princes.

Results of the 11th century in Rus'

In general, the 11th century became quite successful for the development of Rus'. The country continued the process of unification, state bodies and centralized self-government began to form. Despite the constant strife among the princes, this also had a positive impact - cities and volosts began to develop, which wanted to be independent from Kyiv. Economic growth has begun. The adoption of Christianity also has importance to unite people on the basis of a single culture and a single spirituality. The country is developing, not only the Russian state is being formed, but also the Russian people.

Internecine wars in Rus'

Princely civil strife - the struggle of Russian princes among themselves for power and territory.

The main period of civil strife fell on the 10-11th century. The main reasons for the enmity between the princes were:

Dissatisfaction with the distribution of territories;

· Struggle for sole power in Kyiv;

· Struggle for the right not to depend on the will of Kyiv.

First civil strife (10th century). feud between sons Svyatoslav ;

Second civil strife (early 11th century). feud between sons Vladimir .

Third civil strife (late 11th century). feud between sons Yaroslav .

In Rus', there was no centralized power, no single state, and no tradition to pass the throne to the eldest of the sons, so the great princes, leaving many heirs according to tradition, doomed them to endless enmity among themselves. Despite the fact that the heirs received power in one of the large cities, they all aspired to become the prince of Kyiv and be able to subjugate their own brothers.

The first civil strife in Rus'

The first family feud broke out after the death of Svyatoslav, who left three sons. Yaropolk received power in Kyiv, Oleg - in the territory of the Drevlyans, and Vladimir - in Novgorod. The first time after the death of their father, the brothers lived peacefully, but then the first conflicts over territory began.

In 975 (76), on the orders of Prince Oleg, on the territory of the Drevlyans, where Vladimir ruled, the son of one of the governors of Yaropolk was killed. The governor, who learned about this, reported to Yaropolk about what had happened and persuaded him to attack Oleg with an army. This was the beginning of the civil strife, which lasted for several years.

In 977 Yaropolk attacks Oleg. Oleg, who did not expect an attack and was unprepared, was forced, together with his army, to retreat back to the capital of the Drevlyans, the city of Ovruch. As a result of panic, during the retreat, Oleg accidentally dies under the hooves of one of his horses. The Drevlyans, having lost their prince, quickly surrender and submit to the authority of Yaropolk. At the same time, Vladimir, fearing an attack by Yaropolk, runs to the Varangians.

In 980, Vladimir returned to Rus' with the Varangian army and immediately undertook a campaign against his brother Yaropolk. He quickly retakes Novgorod and then moves on to Kyiv. Yaropolk, having learned about his brother's intentions to seize the throne in Kyiv, follows the advice of one of his assistants and flees to the city of Rodna, fearing an assassination attempt. However, the adviser turns out to be a traitor who entered into an agreement with Vladimir and Yaropolk, dying of hunger in Lyubech, is forced to negotiate with Vladimir. Having reached his brother, he dies from the swords of two Varangians, without concluding a truce.

Thus ends the civil strife of the sons of Svyatoslav. At the end of 980, Vladimir becomes a prince in Kyiv, where he rules until his death.

First feudal strife and marked the beginning of a long period of internal wars between the princes, which would last for almost a century and a half.

The second civil strife in Rus'

In 1015, Vladimir dies and a new enmity begins - the civil strife of the sons of Vladimir. Vladimir left 12 sons, each of whom wanted to become a prince of Kyiv and gain almost unlimited power. However, the main struggle was between Svyatopolk and Yaroslav.

Svyatopolk becomes the first Kyiv prince, since he had the support of Vladimir's warriors and was closest to Kyiv. He kills the brothers Boris and Gleb and becomes the head of the throne.

In 1016, a bloody struggle for the right to rule Kiev between Svyatopolk and Yaroslav begins.

Yaroslav, who ruled in Novgorod, gathers an army, which includes not only Novgorodians, but also Varangians, and goes with him to Kyiv. After a battle with Svyatoslav's army near Lyubech, Yaroslav captures Kyiv and forces his brother to flee. However, some time later, Svyatoslav returns with the Polish wars and recaptures the city, forcing Yaroslav back to Novgorod. But the fight doesn't end there either. Yaroslav again goes to Kyiv and this time he manages to win the final victory.

1016 - Yaroslav the Wise becomes a prince in Kyiv, where he rules until his death.

The third civil strife in Rus'

The third enmity began after the death of Yaroslav the Wise, who during his lifetime was very afraid that his death would lead to family strife and therefore tried to divide power between the children in advance. Despite the fact that Yaroslav left clear instructions for his sons and established who would reign where, the desire to seize power in Kyiv again provoked civil strife between the Yaroslavichs and plunged Rus' into another war.

According to Yaroslav's testament, Kyiv was given to his eldest son Izyaslav, Svyatoslav got Chernigov, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl, Vyacheslav - Smolensk, and Igor - Vladimir.

In 1054, Yaroslav dies, but the sons do not seek to win back territories from each other, on the contrary, they fight together against foreign invaders. However, when the external threat was defeated, the war for power in Rus' begins.

For almost the entire year 1068, different children of Yaroslav the Wise ended up on the throne of Kyiv, but in 1069 power again returned to Izyaslav, as Yaroslav bequeathed. Since 1069, Izyaslav has ruled Russia.

In the XII century, the Mongols wandered in Central Asia and were engaged in cattle breeding. This type activity required a constant change of habitat. To acquire new territories, a strong army was needed, which the Mongols had. It was distinguished by good organization and discipline, all of which ensured the victorious march of the Mongols.

In 1206, a congress of the Mongolian nobility - kurultai - took place, at which Khan Temuchin was elected great khan, and he received the name Chingis. At first, the Mongols were interested in vast territories in China, Siberia and Central Asia. They then headed west.

The Volga Bulgaria and Rus' were the first to stand in their way. The Russian princes "met" the Mongols in a battle that took place in 1223 on the Kalka River. The Mongols attacked the Polovtsy, and they turned to their neighbors, the Russian princes, for help. The defeat of the Russian troops on the Kalka was due to the disunity and disorganized actions of the princes. At this time, the Russian lands were significantly weakened by civil strife, and the princely squads were more busy with internal disagreements. A well-organized army of nomads won the first victory relatively easily.

P.V. Ryzhenko. Kalka

Invasion

The Kalka victory was only the beginning. In 1227, Genghis Khan died, and his grandson Batu became the head of the Mongols. In 1236, the Mongols decided to finally deal with the Polovtsy and the next year defeated them near the Don.

Now it is the turn of the Russian principalities. Ryazan resisted for six days, but was captured and destroyed. Then came the turn of Kolomna and Moscow. In February 1238, the Mongols approached Vladimir. The siege of the city lasted four days. Neither the militias nor the princely warriors were able to defend the city. Vladimir fell, the princely family perished in a fire.

After that, the Mongols split up. One part moved to the northwest, laid siege to Torzhok. On the City River, the Russians were defeated. Not reaching a hundred kilometers to Novgorod, the Mongols stopped and moved south, ruining cities and villages along the way.

Southern Rus' felt the brunt of the invasion in the spring of 1239. The first victims were Pereyaslavl and Chernihiv. The Mongols began the siege of Kyiv in the autumn of 1240. The defenders fought back for three months. The Mongols were able to take the city only with heavy losses.

Consequences

Batu was going to continue the campaign already in Europe, but the state of the troops did not allow him to do this. They were drained of blood, and the new campaign never took place. And in Russian historiography, the period from 1240 to 1480 is known as the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Rus'.

During this period, all contacts, including trade, with the West practically ceased. The Mongol khans controlled foreign policy. The collection of tribute and the appointment of princes became obligatory. Any disobedience was severely punished.

The events of these years caused significant damage to the Russian lands, they lagged far behind the European countries. The economy was weakened, the farmers went north, trying to protect themselves from the Mongols. Many artisans fell into slavery, and some crafts simply ceased to exist. Culture suffered no less damage. Many temples were destroyed and no new ones were built for a long time.

Capture of Suzdal by the Mongols.
Miniature from the Russian chronicle

However, some historians believe that the yoke stopped the political fragmentation of the Russian lands and even gave further impetus to their unification.

This period became one of the blackest in the history of the principalities of Kievan Rus. At the beginning of the new century in Rus', a constant struggle continued between multiple principalities. Constant wars led to the ruin and decline of cities, to a reduction in population and to the weakening of all of Rus' as a whole. Even in the face of the general threat that the Golden Horde became, the Russian principalities did not unite into a single state, and therefore could not give a worthy rebuff.

The Polovtsy, who had previously been at war with the Russian princes, were the first to be attacked by a cruel enemy. They could not stand against them alone, so they turned to the rulers of the eastern Russian principalities. However, their combined forces were not enough to repel the great threat. The united army did not have a unified command, the princes acted according to their own reasoning and most of all cared for their own benefit. In 1223, the battle was lost on the Kalka River (modern Donetsk region Ukraine). Then the Mongols reached only the edges of the Russian lands.

In 1237, Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, entered the Ryazan principality with his army, starting the conquest of Rus'. Yuri Vsevolodovich tried to stop his opponents, but the princes from the southern Russian principalities and the Novgorod army did not come to his aid, so in 1238 he was defeated. Subsequently, Batu captured and imposed tribute on almost all the eastern, southern and central territories of the former Kievan Rus. The most powerful Russian principality at that time was Novgorod Rus', but it had its own problems. The Swedes and the Teutonic knights opposed him and the allied Lithuanian principality. The terrible enemy was defeated thanks to the skillful actions of Prince Alexander, the son of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, the ruler of Vladimir. The Novgorodians turned to him for help, and by joint efforts they first defeated the Swedes in the Battle of the Neva, after which Alexander received his famous nickname. After 2 years, there was a battle that went down in history as the Battle of the Ice, during which the Teutonic knights suffered a crushing defeat in battle with Alexander's army.

In the same period, the Galician principality began to weaken, which had previously successfully repulsed the Tatars' raids on their lands. Despite some successes, in general, Rus' in the 13th century, briefly described in this section, fell into decline. Most of it was under the rule of foreign invaders, who slowed down its development for several centuries. Only a few centuries later, the Moscow principality managed to defeat other Russian principalities in the struggle, get rich with fire, sword and deceit and capture almost the entire territory of the former Kievan Rus, and throw off the yoke of the Golden Horde.

After the collapse of Kievan Rus, three strong principalities were identified, to which dozens of small ones gravitated. These were Novgorod(a feature is the boyar republic, the prince was invited, they could have been expelled, he did not perform almost any functions), Vladimir-Suzdal principality (the beginning of the local dynasty was laid by Monomakh's son Yuri Dolgoruky, the founder of Moscow. Dolgoruky's son Andrey Bogolyubsky first assumed the title Grand Duke of Vladimir. This principality became the basis for the formation of the Russian people), Galicia-Volyn principality (the basis for the formation of the Ukrainian people, more will be said about it later).
It was during this period that the paths of the previously united nationality diverge, and differences gradually begin to appear, caused by geographical, external and internal political circumstances. Three future separate peoples are beginning to form - Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

The collapse of a single state into several small ones led to the strengthening of external enemies and their attempts to interfere in the affairs of Rus'. Moreover, the princes and boyars in the struggle for power often resorted to the services of foreigners, that is, they themselves brought this plague to Rus'.

There were two main hostile foreign policy factors - the Mongol-Tatars and the crusaders.

Mongols - many tribes of southern Siberia and Transbaikalia - Tatars, Taichuits, Merkits, Oirats and others (in Europe they were all later called simply "Tatars", hence the confusion that Soviet historiography tried to avoid by calling these tribes Mongolo-Tatars). In 1206, after a long struggle for power, all the Mongol tribes were united under their rule by the son of one of the Taichuit leaders, Temujin, who took the title of Genghis Khan.

He divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), mixing tribes and clans and appointing specially selected people as commanders over them. All adult and healthy men were considered warriors who ran their household in peacetime, and in war time took up arms. Such an organization provided Genghis Khan with the opportunity to create a large army and at the same time get rid of tribal enmity. The basis of the Mongol army was mobile light cavalry. Every man from childhood prepared to become a warrior, skillfully wielded a sword, bow and spear. The child sat on a horse when he began to walk. The law contributed to the strengthening of military discipline: if in battle one of the ten runs away from the enemy, then the whole ten was executed; if a dozen run in a hundred, then they executed the whole hundred, if a hundred run and open a gap to the enemy, then they executed the whole thousand. The Mongolian cavalry on their short, hardy horses could travel up to 80 km per day. Genghis Khan elevated the written law to a cult, was supporters of a firm rule of law. He created a network of lines of communication in his empire, courier communications on a large scale for military and administrative purposes, organized intelligence.
By 1211, Genghis Khan conquered Siberia, by 1215 - northern China (finally all of China submitted to the Mongols only in 1235). In 1218, the Mongols invaded Central Asia, conquered Semirechye, the most fertile region of Kazakhstan, which was ruled by Genghis Khan's longtime enemy, Khan Kuchluk. In 1219-1221 the Mongols conquered the most powerful state of Khorezm - the territory of modern Uzbekistan. Here, the inhabitants were treated extremely cruelly, since they killed the Mongol merchants and ambassadors, and the Mongols did not forgive this.
After that, Genghis Khan sent a strong cavalry corps under the command of Jebe and Subedei to reconnoiter the western lands. They passed along the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, penetrated into the Transcaucasus, defeated the Georgian army (1222), then defeated the combined army of the Polovtsy, Lezgins, Circassians and Alans. The Polovtsy fled to Rus', their khan Kotyan asked not to refuse him the help of his son-in-law Mstislav the Udaly. A large princely congress was convened in Kyiv, after which the armed forces of the princes of Kyiv, Galicia, Chernigov, Seversky, Smolensk and Volyn came out in support of the Polovtsians. In the battle on the Kalka River, the troops of Daniel of Galicia, Mstislav the Udaly and Khan Kotyan, without informing the rest of the princes, decided to deal with the Mongols on their own and on May 31, 1223 were defeated with passive contemplation by the main Russian forces led by Mstislav III, located on the opposite bank of the Kalka . However, the Mongols defeated them three days later.
After the battle on Kalka, the Mongol-Tatars went to the Volga Bulgaria, but were repulsed by the Bulgarians and left for Asia.
A new stage in the conquest of the West began under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. Batu defeated the Volga Bulgaria, ruined Ryazan (1237), Moscow, Vladimir-on-Klyazma (1238). In 1239, Batu conquered Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, ruined Kyiv (December 6, 1240), Vladimir-Volynsky, Galich (1241). Here the horde of Batu was divided. Part went to Poland, where the Mongols defeated the Poles near Liegnitz. The other part went to Hungary. Bela IV of Hungary was utterly defeated by Batu and fled. Batu. In December 1241, Khan Ogedei, Batu's uncle, died; this news, received by Batu at the height of his European successes, forced him to rush to Mongolia to take part in the election of a new khan.
Even during his lifetime, Genghis Khan divided the vast empire between his sons into uluses: the ulus of Ogedei - Mongolia and Northern China, the ulus of Chagatai - Central Asia, the ulus of Jochi - the space west of the Irtysh, the ulus of Hulagu - Iran and Transcaucasia. In 1243, Batu settled on the Lower Volga and proclaimed the creation of a new state - the Golden Horde, with its capital in Saray, separating from the Jochi ulus. The borders of the Golden Horde stretched from the Irtysh to the Danube, including Desht-i-Kypchak (Polovtsian steppe), Volga Bulgaria, Khorezm, the Urals, Crimea and the North Caucasus.
The basis of the military force of the Horde was the Turkic-speaking Kipchaks (Polovtsy). In addition, the Mongols involved in their movement to the west many peoples - Bashkirs, Uighurs, Buryats, Kirghiz, Chuvashs, Pechenegs, etc. From the beginning of the XIV century. The Kypchak language became the state language of the Golden Horde, and Islam was adopted as the state religion. The basis of public administration was a system borrowed from China - a strong centralized state. Later, this system was borrowed from the Mongols and introduced by the Moscow princes.
Russian lands were in vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. Rus' paid tribute, the Russian princes had to go to Sarai when they ascended the throne to receive a label from the Mongol khan. The stories about the horrors of the Mongol yoke either date back to the beginning of the Mongol rule, before the beginning of the 14th century, or are connected not so much with the Mongols as with the Russian princes, who, in the fight against each other, called on detachments of nomads to help themselves, allowing them to rob Russian lands as a payment.

Crusaders - common name Catholic knightly orders, European knights, at first participated in the crusades of the XI-XIII centuries with the aim of recapturing the Holy Land from the Muslims, later commit Crusades and in Europe - against heretics, against pagans, against Turks. They were also related to Russian history.
In 1200 Bishop Albert of Bremen landed at the mouth of the Dvina and founded Riga. In 1202 he created the Catholic Order of the Swordsmen. The hallmark of its members was a white robe with a red cross and a sword on it. The order was created to capture the Baltic states under the banner of its Christianization. In addition, in 1217 Danish knights landed in northern Estonia and founded Reval (Tallinn).

The tactics of the knights were the same: after the suppression of the local pagan head, the population was forcibly converted to Christianity. A castle was built on this site, around which the arriving Germans began to actively use the land. In the 1920s, the knights subjugated the lands of the Latvians and Estonians, clashes between the order and the Russians began, who, since the time of Yaroslav the Wise, had kept a significant part of the Baltic under their influence.

In 1226, the Polish prince Konrad invites the knights of another order, the Teutonic Order, to help in the fight against the Baltic tribe of the Prussians. They founded the fortresses of Thorn and Marienburg, by 1283 they conquered all of Prussia, slaughtering the Polish population along the way.

Meanwhile, the Order of the Swordsmen is defeated by Novgorodians (1234) and Lithuanians (1236). In 1237, the remnants of the Order of the Swordsmen merge into the Teutonic Order, forming its subsidiary, the Livonian Order. The Teutonic and Livonian orders are becoming the main destabilizing factors in the Baltics, seeking to subjugate, rob or exterminate the Polish, Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian and Russian population of the region.

In 1236, the crusaders reach the Galicia-Volyn principality, in 1240-1242 they wage a protracted war with Pskov and Novgorod, but they are rebuffed. The main role in the fight against the crusaders was played by the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 2/3 consisting of Russian lands, but it will also be discussed later.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF Rus'

Serious changes took place in the socio-economic development of Rus' in the 13th and 14th centuries. After the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars in North-Eastern Rus', the economy was restored, handicraft production was revived again. There is a growth and increase in the economic importance of cities that did not play a serious role in the pre-Mongolian period (Moscow, Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Kostroma).

Fortification construction is actively developing, the construction of stone temples is being resumed. Agriculture and the craft is rapidly developing in North-Eastern Rus'.

There is an improvement of old technologies and the emergence of new ones.

In Rus' received distribution water wheels and water mills. Parchment began to be actively replaced by paper. Salinity develops. There are centers for the production of books in large book centers and monasteries. Massive casting (bell production) develops. Agriculture develops somewhat more slowly than crafts.

Slash-and-burn agriculture continues to be replaced by field arable land. Bipolarity is widespread.

New villages are being actively built. The number of pets is increasing, which means that the introduction of organic fertilizers to the fields.

LARGE LAND OWNERSHIP IN Rus'

There is an increase in patrimonial possessions by distributing land by the princes to their boyars for feeding, that is, for management with the right to collect taxes in their favor.

From the second half of the 14th century, monastic land ownership began to grow rapidly.

PEASANTRY IN Rus'

In Ancient Rus', the entire population was called peasants, regardless of their occupations. As one of the main classes of the Russian population, whose main occupation is agriculture, the peasantry took shape in Russia by the 14th-15th centuries. A peasant sitting on the land with a three-field turnover had an average of 5 acres in one field, hence 15 acres in three fields.

Wealthy peasants took additional plots from estate owners in black volosts. poor peasants often they had neither land nor a yard. They lived in other people's yards and were called doorkeepers. These peasants carried corvee duties to their owners - they plowed and sowed their land, harvested crops, and mowed hay. Meat and lard, vegetables and fruits, and much more were contributed to the quitrent. All peasants were already feudally dependent.

• communal- worked on public lands,
• possessory- these could leave, but within a clearly limited timeframe (Filipov's day November 14, St. George's day November 26, Petrov's day June 29, Christmas December 25)
• personally dependent peasants.

FIGHT OF MOSCOW AND TVER PRINCIPALITIES IN Rus'

By the beginning of the 14th century, Moscow and Tver became the strongest principalities of North-Eastern Rus'. The first Moscow prince was the son of Alexander Nevsky Daniil Alexandrovich (1263-1303). In the early 90s, Daniil Aleksandrovich annexed Mozhaisk to the Moscow principality, and in 1300 he conquered Kolomna from Ryazan.

Since 1304, the son of Daniel, Yuri Danilovich, fought for the great reign of Vladimir with Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver, who received a label for great reign in 1305 in the Golden Horde.

Metropolitan of All Rus' Macarius provided support to the Moscow prince in this struggle.

In 1317, Yuri received a label for a great reign, and a year later, in the Golden Horde, Yuri's main enemy, Mikhail of Tverskoy, was killed. But in 1322, Prince Yuri Daniilovich was deprived of his great reign as a punishment. The label was given to the son of Mikhail Yaroslavovich Dmitry Terrible Eyes.

In 1325, Dmitry killed the culprit in the death of his father in the Golden Horde, for which he was executed by the khan in 1326.

The great reign was transferred to the brother of Dmitry Tverskoy - Alexander. With him, the Horde detachment was sent to Tver. The atrocities of the Horde caused an uprising of the townspeople, which was supported by the prince, as a result, the Horde was defeated.

IVAN KALITA

These events were skillfully used by the new Moscow prince Ivan Kalita. He participated in the punitive Horde expedition to Tver. Tverskaya land was devastated. The great reign of Vladimir was divided between Ivan Kalita and Alexander of Suzdal. After the death of the latter, the label for a great reign was almost constantly in the hands of the Moscow princes. Ivan Kalita continued the line of Alexander Nevsky in keeping a lasting peace with the Tatars.

He also made an alliance with the church. Moscow becomes the center of faith, as the metropolitan moved to Moscow forever and left Vladimir.

The Grand Duke received the right from the Horde to collect tribute himself, which had favorable consequences for the treasury of Moscow.

Ivan Kalita also increased his possessions. New lands were bought and begged from the Khan of the Golden Horde. Galich, Uglich and Beloozero were annexed. Also, some princes voluntarily became part of the Moscow principality.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF MOSCOW LEADS THE OVERTHROW OF THE TATAR-MONGOLIAN YOG BY RUSSIA

The policy of Ivan Kalita was continued by his sons - Semyon the Proud (1340-1359) and Ivan 2 the Red (1353-1359). After the death of Ivan 2, his 9-year-old son Dmitry (1359-1387) became the prince of Moscow. At this time, the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich had a label for reigning. A sharp struggle unfolded between him and the group of the Moscow boyars. Metropolitan Alexei took the side of Moscow, who actually headed the Moscow government until Moscow finally won the victory in 1363.

Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich continued the policy of strengthening the Moscow principality. In 1371, Moscow inflicted a major defeat on the Ryazan principality. The struggle with Tver continued. When in 1371 Mikhail Alekseevich Tverskoy received a label for the great reign of Vladimir and tried to occupy Vladimir, Dmitry Ivanovich refused to obey the khan's will. In 1375, Mikhail of Tverskoy again received a label on the Vladimir table. Then almost all the princes of northeastern Rus' opposed him, supporting the Moscow prince in his campaign against Tver. After a month-long siege, the city capitulated. According to the concluded agreement, Mikhail recognized Dmitry as his overlord.

As a result of the internal political struggle in the North-Eastern Russian lands, the Moscow principality achieved a leading position in the collection of Russian lands and turned into a real force capable of resisting the horde and Lithuania.

Since 1374, Dmitry Ivanovich stopped paying tribute to the Golden Horde. The Russian church played a big role in strengthening anti-Tatar sentiments.

In the 60s and 70s of the 14th century, civil strife within the Golden Horde intensified. In two decades, up to two dozen khans appear and disappear. Temporary workers appeared and disappeared. One of these, the most powerful and cruel was Khan Mamai. He tried to collect tribute from the Russian lands, despite the fact that Takhtamysh was the legitimate khan. The threat of a new invasion united the main forces of North-Eastern Rus' under the leadership of Moscow Prince Dmitry Ivanovich.

Olgerd's sons Andrey and Dmitry, who had gone over to the service of the Moscow prince, took part in the campaign. Mamai's ally Grand Duke Jagiello was late to arrive at the connection with the Horde army. The Prince of Ryazan Oleg Ivanovich, who only formally entered into an alliance with the Golden Horde, did not join Mamai either.

On September 6, the united Russian army approached the banks of the Don. So for the first time after 1223, since the battle on the Kalka River, the Russians went out into the steppe to meet the Horde. On the night of September 8, Russian troops, on the orders of Dmitry Ivanovich, crossed the Don.

The battle took place on September 8, 1380 on the banks of the right tributary of the Don river. Lies, in the area that bore the name of the Kulikovo field. At first, the Horde pushed back the Russian regiments. Then an ambush regiment under the command of the Serpukhov prince hit them. The Horde army could not withstand the onslaught of fresh Russian forces and fled. The battle turned into a pursuit of an enemy retreating in disarray.

HISTORICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE BATTLE OF KULIKOV

The historical significance of the Battle of Kulikovo was enormous. The main forces of the Golden Horde were defeated.

The idea was strengthened in the minds of the Russian people that the Horde could be defeated by united forces.

Prince Dmitry Ivanovich received from his descendants the honorary nickname Donskoy and found himself in the political role of an all-Russian prince. Unusually increased his authority. Militant anti-Tatar sentiments intensified in all Russian lands.

DMITRY DONSKOY

Having lived only incomplete four decades, he did a lot for Rus' from a young age until the end of his days, Dmitry Donskoy was constantly in worries, campaigns and troubles. He had to fight both the Horde and Lithuania and Russian rivals for power and political primacy.

Settled the prince and church affairs. Dmitry received the blessing of hegumen Sergius of Radonezh, whose constant support he always enjoyed.

SERGIUS OF RADONEZH

Church pastors played a prominent role, not only in ecclesiastical, but also in political affairs. Trinity hegumen Sergius of Radonezh was unusually respected by the people. In the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, which was founded by Sergius of Radonezh, strict orders were cultivated in accordance with the cenobitic charter.

These orders became a model for other monasteries. Sergius of Radonezh called people to inner perfection, to live according to the Gospel. He tamed strife, tried on princes who agreed to submit to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

THE BEGINNING OF THE UNION OF THE RUSSIAN LANDS

The beginning of the state unification of Russian lands began with the rise of Moscow. 1st stage of consolidation can rightly be considered the activities of Ivan Kalita, who bought land from the khans and begged for them. His policy was continued by his sons Semyon Proud and Ivan 2 Krasny.

They included Kastroma, Dmitrov, Starodub lands and part of Kaluga into Moscow. 2nd stage activity of Dmitry Donskoy. In 1367 he erected white walls and fortifications around Moscow. In 1372, he achieved recognition of dependence from Ryazan, defeated the Tver principality. By 1380, he had not paid tribute to the Golden Horde for 13 years.