In 454, Emperor Valentinyan III executed his brilliant, but the waywards of the ace, and a year later killed himself. The next twenty years were the period of political chaos: at least eight emperors were erected on the throne and are lowrated - or on the initiative of the Roman Senate aristocracy, or to bring the Eastern Emperor. For the twenty-third of August 476. The German detachments in Italy (which now compiled the main part of the Roman army) elected the king of his commander of Odacra and lowered the last West emperor Romulus Augustus (the government of Augustus refused to highlight the soldiers a third of the land - it was so much the Roman "allies" in Gaul) .

This event meant the end of the Roman Empire in the West. Formally, the Eastern Emperor Zenon was ruled by the entire territory of the empire. In fact, the Odoacre, hated by the Roman aristocracy and not recognized by Constantinople, became an independent ruler of Italy.

Ostrhets in Italy

Zenon did not have the opportunity to win italy, but he still avenged Odacra. Ostrogoty, defeated and enslaved by the Huns, in the end, like Westges, moved to the Balkan Provinces of the Empire. In 488, Zenon convinced their leader, theodorich, to speak from Mesia (modern Serbia) to Italy. From the emperor, it was a clever move: whoever won in Italy, the Eastern Empire at least got rid of the last tribe of the barbarians, which was still in its provinces.

By 493, Ostogota occupied Italy, the Odacre was dead (he killed him, in the stories, theodorih himself). Formally theodorih as an emperor's governor received the title of Patricia, but in fact he remained as independent as other leaders of the barbarians.

Roman Empire in the East: Justinian

Care sharpened to Italy freed the eastern part of the Roman Empire from the last tribe of the barbarians, which invaded its territory in V c. In the following, VI in. The Greco-Roman civilization has once again demonstrated its viability, and the military and administrative organization of the empire proved wonderful flexibility and the ability to effectively respond to the requirements of the situation. The great cities of the empire - Alexandria, Antioch, Caesarea and Jerusalem - did not lose their power. The merchants of these cities were still equipped with ships throughout the Mediterranean Sea and down the Red Sea - to East Africa, at Ceylon and even further.

Byzantine (i.e., the Roman) gold coin is a solid (on which the image of the emperor was minted) - walked throughout the civilized world, from Ireland to China. The caravans crossed the huge Asian mainland on the route equipped with numerous innocent yards. One of such caravans secretly took the silk worms from China, and soon his own silk production bloomed in Cyprus and in other parts of the empire. For rich citizens, life remained almost the same as it was over the centuries. Young people received both classic and religious education in academies and universities. Christianity, for the three centuries, which were under the protection and patronage of the state, was their wealth in hundreds of churches, decorated with luxurious lamps, sculptures and mosaics.

However, Constantinople became the biggest and rich city, the capital of the empire. Remembering the fate of Rome in 410, the emperors surrounded Constantinople with the system of defensive walls with towers who defended him both from Sushi and from the sea. These walls successfully opposed all attacks until 1204, when the Crusaders were treacherously broke into the city and captured it. As before in Rome, now in Constantinople, the emperors had to hold a certain policy against the inhabitants of the huge capital. Still "bread and spectacle" mean a public demonstration of the interest of the authorities in supporting the poorest masses. Fans on the hippodrome (a huge stadium for racing, chariot racing and hiding wild animals) were divided into "green" and "blue". However, these were not just supporters of different teams, but also peculiar parties, distinguished by political and religious views and usually hostile. In 532, they united during anti-government rebounds and several days terrorized the city. Advisors of Justinian strongly recommended him to hide. However, the spouse of Justinian, Feodorus, convinced him to clean up, and professional soldiers of the commander of the Gasizaria mercilessly placed with the rioters.

These riots were the last internal crisis during the Board of Justinian. Further, he ruled the empire as efficiently as its predecessors, and even more selflessly, largely due to the advice of the Empress of the Feodora. Justinian fully controlled the imperial bureaucracy and introduced taxes at its discretion. As the Supreme Law and the judge, he initiated the compilation of the Code of Imperial Laws, the famous Corpus Juris Civilis. (Civil Law Code). In the first three parts, Codex Justinianus. (Code of Justinian), all the decrees of emperors were collected since the time of Adrian (117-138) to 533. Later the Edicts were introduced under the name novel Lae. (New laws). It was this last part of the "corps" contained the rationale for the absolute power of the emperor. In the second part, digests, or the panectages, in 50 books, included excerpts from the writings and judgments of Roman lawyers, relating to civil and criminal law. The third part, institution, was a reduced version of the first two parts, that is, a kind of textbook of law. Probably, no text of a secular character had such a broad and long influence in Europe as Corpus Juris Civilis. . In the subsequent period of the history of the Eastern Empire, he served a comprehensive and rationally constructed system of legislation and study of law. But a much more important role was played in the West, becoming the basis of the canonical and church law of the Roman Catholic Church. From the XII century. The legislation of Justinian gradually begins to dominate the secular courts and legal schools and in the end in most European countries almost displaces ordinary law. Thanks to the Roman law of the autocracy of Justinian served as the intellectual basis of the absolutism of Western monarchies of the XVI, XVII and XVIII centuries. Even in countries such as England, where the usual local law has been preserved, the development of systematic and rationally constructed jurisprudence, the science of the right and philosophy of law would probably be impossible without a historical sample - Corpus Juris Civilis. .

The expression of the magnitude of the emperor and the Christian church (which was actually headed by the emperor) was the restructuring of the temple of St. Sofia (the wisdom of God), which burned down during the riots of 532. Justinian invited the best architects to the capital, mathematicians and masters from all over the Empire, which was raised the most grandiose And the magnificent temple of the Christian world. Even now, his huge flat dome is dominated over the Panorama of Istanbul (the current name of Constantinople). The court historian of Justinian Proktiy Kesia district left us a description of the amazing interiors of the temple, made in the characteristic rhetorical style of the time; It makes it possible to understand the specifics of the Byzantine religiosity VI in.

It penetrates unusually many sunlight, which is also reflected from the marble walls. And indeed, it would be possible to say that it is not so much illuminated by the sun outside, how much shining from the inside, his altar bathes in such an abundance of light ... All his ceiling is fully separated by pure gold - which makes his beauty majestic. However, the most light is reflected still from stone surfaces, competing with glitter of gold ... Who has enough words to adequately describe the gallery of the female side and the colonnade of the side chassis, which the temple is surrounded? Who is able to describe all the beauty of columns and colored stones that decorate it? You can imagine that you are in the middle of a meadow, abounding with the finest colors: Some of them are distinguished by an amazing purple color, others - green, the third are grown raspberry, the fourth - dazzling and white, and other, like the artist's palette, sparkle the most different colors. And when a person enters this temple to raise prayer, he immediately comprehends that he is not human forces and not human skill, and the care of God's creation was born so beautiful. And then his spirit rushes to God and towers, feeling that he could not be far away, but should be with hunting in that housing, which he chose 24 himself.

The majestic magnificence, relaxed by beauty, light and divine love, was the heritage of the emperor, who considered himself a governor of God on Earth. This largely explains the long existence of the Roman Empire in the East.

Reconstruction shows how part of the great ancient Rome looked like.

At the layout of ancient Rome - Tiberin Island, Circus Massimo and Marcello Theater.

Terms (that is, the baths) of the Caracalla, who had once consisted of huge halls, including gymnastic and massage, porticors, fountains, gardens, libraries. There were pools with cool, warm and hot water.

The plot of an ancient city road, which has come down to the present day. The road leads to the Arch of Titus.

Modern European civilization originated and grew around the Mediterranean Sea. It is enough to look at the card or on the globe to understand - the place is unique. According to the Mediterranean Sea, it is quite simple to swim: his shores are very winding, there are many islands in it, especially in the eastern part, and they are located close to each other. And the ships of Frozdili the Mediterranean Sea are still in those times when the speed of the course depended on the amount of bread and beer, eaten and drunk by rowers, and the sail was considered a fashionable novelty.

The inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast early learned each other. Advanced merchants and pirates (usually they were the same people) acquainted the surrounding barbarians with the ingenious fudges of the Egyptians and Babylonian. These are complex rites of reverending mysterious gods, and the technique of making metal weapons and beautiful clayware, and amazing art to record human speech.

Two and a half thousand years ago, the most advanced people in the Mediterranean were Greeks. They knew how to do very beautiful things, their merchants traded around the coast, and the warriors were considered almost invincible. From Spain to Arabia, many people spoke in the Greek dialect Koine ("General"). They wrote poems, plays and scientists treatises, letters to friends and reports to the kings. At the very of different nations Citizens went B. gymnasiumwe watched theatrical ideas in Greek, in the Greek samples arranged competitions in running and struggle, and the palaces and temples of even minor kings and gods were decorated with Greek statues.

But the Greek Empire did not create. They did not strive to create it, like, for example, ants do not seek to connect their cozy dwellings into one supermaneury. Greeks used to living with small communities - polishes. They felt like one people, but first of all remained the Athenians, Spartans, Ephessians, Fokesers, etc. Aliens could live in a foreign policy for several generations, but did not become his citizens.

Another thing is Rome. The Romans were excellent organizers. They courageously fought, did not lose with failures and, moreover, they knew how to negotiate.

Initially, people from different tribes settled on the Roman hills, nevertheless, they quickly found a common language and turned into a respected patriches.With later settlers - plebea- Patricia did not want to share power for a long time, but in the end they agreed with them. By the time Rome proceeded to large-scale conquests, Patricia and Plebei were already merged into a single Roman people.

Gradually, its neighbors were drawn into this nation - italiki.However, alien slaves served the largest source of replenishment of the Roman nation.

In Greece, slaves were released on the will only in exceptional cases; In Rome, it was rather rule. Having received freedom, the former slave became scicker- A person is free, although not independent, dependent on the former owner. Power over free people, from the point of view of Roman, was much honorable than power over slaves. Later, this look inherited the peoples settled on the ruins of the Roman Empire. "In my country, representatives of the authorities are proud that they are servants of society; It would be a shame to be his master, "said Winston Churchill's famous politician in the 20th century.

It was also profitable to release slaves to the will: for the liberation of Mr. Mr. could appoint such a ransom that he bought several slaves for the received money. In addition, Roman senators who custom did not allow making money with "low" classes, through the scickers bought shopping ships and shares in companies.

As for the former slaves, their grandchildren did not carry a stamp of slave origin and were equalized with freebious.

What is the lesson from here?

Only a big people can show yourself. Due to the fact that the Romans did not sit on the aliens and did not shout "all sorts" here, "the Roman people remained quite numerous for several centuries, so that not only to subjugate huge densely populated territories, but also to hold them in obedience. If the Romans were prone to disunity, as the Greeks, there would be no Roman Empire and in risen. So, there would be no such Europe, which we see today, and in general, the whole story would go differently.

Nevertheless, every medal has two sides.

New citizens assimilated Roman customs. But they themselves influenced the indigenous Romans, which gradually dissolved among numerous strangers. The descendants of slaves released on the will no longer wanted to risk life, defending Roman Empire. This eventually led her to death.

True, it happened after a few centuries. By that time, the Romans left such a bright track in history that it was already impossible to erase it. (476 This year is considered to be the end date of the existence of the Western Roman Empire. Eastern, called Byzantium, existed for another thousand years.)

Figures and facts

- The population of ancient Rome at the peak of his power was a million people. Europe came out for the same level only in 2000 years: at the beginning of the twentieth century, a million inhabitants have numbered only by some European cities.

The Roman Empire, according to different estimates, built from 1500 to 1800 cities. For comparison: at the beginning of the twentieth century, there were about 700 on the territory of the entire Russian empire. Almost all major cities in Europe founded Romans: Paris, London, Budapest, Vienna, Belgrade, Sofia, Milan, Turin, Bern ...

14 aqueducts from 15 to 80 kilometers long supplied water to the population of ancient Rome. From them, water went to fountains, pools, public baths and toilets and even in some houses of wealthy citizens. It was the real water supply. In Europe, such structures appeared more than 1000 years.

The total length of the roads of the Roman Empire was equal to different estimates, from 250 to 300 thousand kilometers - this is seven and a half Equators of the Earth! Of these, only 14 thousand kilometers ran through Italy itself, and the rest are in the provinces. If you do not count the dirt roads, 90 thousand kilometers were real highways - with solid coating, tunnels and bridges.

The famous Roman sewage - Maxim Cloaca - built in the VII-VI centuries BC and existed for 1000 years. Its sizes were so great that employees could move on the boat through underground sewer channels.

Details for curious

Roads of the Roman Empire

Huge the powerful Roman Empire in Square (on its territory today there are 36 states) could not exist without roads. The ancient Romans were famous for the ability to build first-class roads, and they made them for a century. It is difficult to believe in it, but part of the road network, built 2,000 years ago in Europe, was used in direct appointment until the beginning of the twentieth century!

The Roman Road is a complex engineering structure. At first, I was digging a trench with a depth of 1 m and scored oak piles into the bottom (especially if the soil was raw). The edges of the trench were strengthened with stone slabs and created inside it " layered cake»From large stone, stone bed, sand, stone, lime, tiled powder. From above on such a road pillow put itself road covering - Stone plates. Do not forget: everyone did manually!

At the edges of the Roman roads stood the stone mile (vest) pillars. There were even road signs - high stone columns with the designation of the distance to the nearest settlement and to Rome. And in Rome itself, a zero kilometer was laid with a memorable sign. All highways operated the postal communication system. The speed of delivery of urgent messages was 150 km per day! Along the roads of Say - they had a Chernobor, so that the travelers could put it with the leaves in the sandals, if the legs were shattered.

For the Romans there was nothing impossible. They built roads on mountain passes and in the desert. In Northern Germany, the ancient builders managed to lay the broken roads of the three-meter width even through the swamps. Until now, tens of kilometers of Roman roads are preserved there, which can drive a truck without a risk. And during the Empire, these were the roads of military destination, which kept heavy military equipment - siege guns.

The Roman Empire has a richest history, in addition, a long and complete set of events. If we consider chronology, then the republic was before the empire. Signs of the Roman Empire were autocracy in the board, that is, an unlimited power of the emperor. The Empire owned Orgomny territories in Europe, as well as the whole coast of the Mediterranean Sea.

The history of this large-scale state is divided into the following temporary segments:

• Ancient Rome (from 753 to our era)
• Roman Empire, Western and Eastern Roman Empire
• Eastern Roman Empire (existed near the whole millennium).

However, some historians last period Do not stand out. That is, it is believed that the Roman Empire did not become in 476 of our era.

The state of the state could not quickly switch from the republic to the empire. Therefore, in the history of the Roman Empire there was a period called by the principle. It implies a combination of the features of both forms of government. This stage has been launched from the first century to our era until the third century of our era. But already in "Dominate" (from the end of the third to the middle of the fifth), the monarchy "absorbed" the republic.

The disintegration of the Roman Empire to Western and Eastern.

This event occurred on January 17, 395 of our era. Theodosius I died, but managed to divide the empire between Arkady (the eldest son) and Honorime (Jr.). The first received the eastern part (Byzantium), and the second is Western.

Decay backgrounds:

• Department of the country
• Degradation of ruling and military layers
• Interdobicians, barbaric raids
• The end of the external expansion of the boundaries (that is, the receipts of gold, labor and other goods ceased)
• Defeat from Scythian and Sarmatian tribes
• Degradation of the population, motto "live in his pleasure"
• Demographic crisis
• The collapse of religion (the predominance of paganism over Christianity) and culture

Western Roman Empire.

I existed from the end of the fourth to the end of the fifth century of our era. Since Honorius came to power at eleven years, he could not cope with one. Therefore, the ruler was essentially the commander-in-chief stylichon. At the beginning of the fifth century, he perfectly defended Italy from the barbarians. But in 410, Stylichon was executed, and no one could save the Apennins from Western ready. Even earlier, in 406-409, Spain and Gallium were defeated. After a series of events, the Earth partially returned to Honoria.

From 425 to 455, the Western Roman Empire moved to Valentinian III. During these years, fierce attacks on the part of Vandals and Gunnov took place. Despite the resistance of the Roman state, part of the territory is lost.

Falling the Western Roman Empire.

This is a significant event in world history. The cause of "death" was the invasion of barbaric tribes (for the most part - German) within the framework of the world resettlement of peoples.

It all started with Western ready in Italy in 401, in 404 the situation was aggravated by the eastern goths and vandals, Burgundy. Then came the Huns. Each of the tribes created its kingdoms in the Western Roman Empire. And in the 460s, when one Italy remained from the state, Odacre (he headed the detachment of the hired barbarians-military in the Roman army) seized her. Thus, on September 4, 476, the Western Roman Empire came an end.

Eastern Roman Empire.

Another name is the Byzantine. This part of the Roman Empire was lucky than West. The system was also autocratic, the rules of the emperor. It is believed that the years of her "life" are 395 to 1453. Constantinople was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire.

In the fourth century, Byzantium passes to feudal relations. With Justinian I (in the middle of the sixth century), the empire managed to return huge territories. Then the extensity of the state began slowly, but it is correct to decrease. The merit of this in the raids of the tribes (Slavs, Goths, Langobard).

In the thirteenth century, Konstantinople was not given "Crusaders", which "liberated" Jerusalem from the followers of Islam.

Gradually, Byzantia lost strength in the economic sphere. A sharp lag from other states also contributed to weakening.

In the fourteenth century, the Turks occur to the Balkans. After the capture of Serbia and Bulgaria, they conquered Constantinople in 1453.

Sacred Roman Empire.

This is a special association of some European countries since the end of the first millennium almost until the end of the second (962-1806). The adoption of the papacy made it "sacred". In general, its full name is the Sacred Roman Empire of the German nation.

The Germans considered themselves a strong nation. They were covered by the idea of \u200b\u200bthe foundation of the empire. Otton I was her creator in 962. The dominant position in this union of states occupied Germany. In addition to her, Italy and Bohemia, Burgundy, Switzerland and the Netherlands were included. In 1134, only Burgundy and Italy remained, of course, Germany remained dominant. A year later, the Czech kingdom entered the association.

Ottone's plan was in the revival and renovation of the Roman Empire. Only a new empire is radically distinguished from antique. First, there were signs of decentralized power, and not a strict monarchical. But the rules still the emperor. His, however, chose a board, not the hereditary line. The title could be assigned only after the coronation of the Roman dad. Secondly, the actions of the emperor were always limited to the layer of the German aristocracy. The emperors of the Sacred Roman Empire were very numerous. Each of them left the imprint of its activities in history.

As a result of Wars Napoleon, the Sacred Roman Empire ceased to exist. Her chapter, Franz II, simply refused to give him power.

History of the Roman Empire. Documentary

106 after R. Kh.

We are now entering the Christian era and can continue not to mention "to" and "after" the Nativity of Christ, as they have done so far to avoid confusion.

In 106, the emperor Traian won Dakia. This country approximately corresponds to modern Romania. It was located north of the Danube - the boundaries of the Empire - and included the Mountain Array of the Carpathians.

On the Bar Reliefs "Columns Traian" in Rome captured the main episodes of this victorious campaign.

New province Dakia will be partially colonized by immigrants from all parts of the empire, they will take Latin language as a language of communication, and he will start romanian language - The only language based on the Latural language of the Eastern Half of the Empire. And this is despite the fact that Greek culture prevailed here.

Critical date

Why did we choose this date?

In the first century, our era, the emperors continued the conciliatory policy of the republic, however, not with such a scope, as before.

Augustus captured Egypt, graduated from the conquest of Spain and conquered the rebellious population of the Alps, making the Danube the border of the empire.

To protect Gallia from the invasions of the barbarians, he was going to conquer Germany, the territory between the Rhine and Elbe. At first, he succeeds in the winning of his son-in-law of Druz and Tiberius.

However, in 9 years after R. Kh. The Germans rebelled under the leadership of Arminia (German) and destroyed Legions of Leah Wara in the Teutoburg forest. This catastrophe, strongly worried Augustow (tell that he cried, repeating: "Var, give me my legions"), forced him, as well as his heirs, refuse to transfer the border on the Rhine. For more than two centuries, Rhine and Danube (associated in the upper flow between Mainz and the Rotisbon fortified wall) were in continental Europe the border of the Empire. In 43, the emperor Claudius joined Britain (modern England), which became the Roman province.

The conquest of Dakia in 106 was the last major territorial acquisition of Roman emperors. After this date, the boundaries remained unchanged more than a century.

Roman Mir

The first two centuries of the empire, corresponding to about two first centuries of our era, were a period inner world And prosperity.

Limes - Border fortifications, along which legions were stood, - ensured security, which made it possible to develop trading ties and the economy.

New cities are built and develop according to Rome: they have an autonomous administration with the Senate and elected magistrates. But in reality, as in Rome, the power belongs to rich, not without certain responsibilities on their part. So, they should at their own expense to build waterways, public buildings: temples, baths, circus or theaters - as well as pay circus performances.

This roman Mir It is impossible to idealize, the cruelly operated provinces are often rebelling. We saw it in Judea. But these uprisings are constantly suppressed by the Roman army.

While in Rome, thanks to conquests or ribs on the boundaries, wealth and slaves flock, a certain economic and social equilibrium is maintained.

When the conquests stopped And the attacks of "Varvarov" are frequent (those who lived abroad of the empire), on the Roman lands economic and social crisis rolls.

"Middle class" supplies less and less citizens, so the Roman army is increasingly replenished by mercenaries, Often these are immigrant barbariums, receiving Roman citizenship or land.

After the reign of August, the imperial power becomes a bet in the struggle arranged at various borders (on the Rhine, Danube and East) and rival armies, too often calling for a campaign to Rome to raise their commander for the throne. Due to these inland unrest the boundaries often remain defenseless and are attacked by barbarians.

Crisis III century

The difficulties begin on the Board of the Aureliya brand (161-180), the emperor-philosopher, which in his "thoughts" sets out humanistic philosophy. The peace-loving emperor is forced to carry out most of the time in the reflection of the attacks on the borders of the state.

After his death, the attack from the outside and the inner excitements are rapidly.

In the III century. Begins the period called Late Empire.

Edict Emperor Karakalla (212), according to which all free inhabitants of the empire receive Roman citizenship, becomes the point of reference in the evolution of the gradual merger of "provincials" and the Romans.

Between 224 and 228 The Parfyan Empire fell under the blows of Sasanidov, the founders of the new dynasty of the Persian Empire. This state will become for the Romans a dangerous opponent - Emperor Valerian in 260 will be captured by Persians and die in captivity.

At the same time, due to internal rebellions and political instability (from 235 to 284, that is, for 49 years, 22 emperors changed) Barbarians first penetrate the limits of the empire.

In 238 goths The German tribe, first switched to the Danube and invaded the Roman province of Mesia and Frace. From 254 to 259. another german tribe, alemanna, He penetrates in Gallia, then in Italy comes to the gate of Milan. First open, Roman cities are building protective walls, including Rome, where the Emperor Aurelian begins in 271. The construction of a fortress wall, first after that was once in Rome Kings.

The economic crisis is manifested in the crisis of money circulation: due to lack of silver the emperors minimize the low sample coin, In which the content of the noble metal is sharply reduced. Since the cost of such money falls, occurs inflation prices.

Diocletian (284-305) is trying to save the empire by reorganization. Considering that one person cannot provide the defense of all borders, he divides the empire for four parts: two emperors appear in Milan and Niccomedia and the two assistants - "Caesar", they are deputy and heirs of emperors.

End of the Roman Empire

In 326, the emperor Konstantin Moves to Byzantium - Greek city, controlling the Bosphorus Strait, which connects the Black Sea with Mediterranean. He gives this city his name, surroundings Constantinople (City of Constantine), and makes "Second Rome" from it.

In 395, the Roman Empire is finally divided into Western Roman Empire, which will disappear in 476 under the strikes of barbarians and Eastern Roman Empire, which exists a thousand years (before the capture of Konstantinople by the Turks in 1453). However, the latter very soon becomes a country of Greek culture, and it will begin to refer to the Byzantine Empire.

The Roman Empire ( ancient Rome) I left a nonetable footprint in all European lands, where only his victorious legions went. The stone liking of Roman architecture was preserved to this day: the walls that defended citizens who moved troops, aqueducts that delivered fresh water to citizens, and bridges deployed through stormy rivers. As if all this was not enough, legionnaires were erected by all new and new facilities - even when the borders of the empire began to retreat. In the era of AdrianaWhen Rome was much more concerned about the ruling of lands, rather than new conquests, the unclaimed military removal of warriors, for a long time cut off from home and family, was wisely sent to another creative-bed. In some sense, the whole European is obliged to the Roman builders who introduced many innovation And in Rome itself, and beyond. The most important achievements of urban planning, which had the goal of public benefit was the sewerage and water pipelines that have created healthy living conditions and contributing to the increase in the population and the growth of the cities themselves. But all this would be impossible if the Romans were not invented concrete And they did not begin to use the arch as the main architectural element. It was these two innovations that the Roman army spread throughout the empire.

Since the stone arches kept the huge weight and could be built very high - sometimes two or three tiers, - engineers who worked in the provinces, without difficulty overlooked any rivers and gorges and traveled to the most distant edges, leaving behind the durable bridges and powerful Water pipes (aqueducts). Like many other facilities built with the help of Roman troops, the bridge in the Spanish city of Segovia, through which the water supply is passed, has a giant dimensions: 27.5 m in height and about 823 m in length. Unusually high and slender pillars, isolated from rudely seized and no bonded granite blocks, and 128 elegant arches leave not only unprecedented power, but also imperial self-confidence. This is a miracle of engineering art, built about 100 tons. And. e., Stallured to the test of time: Recently, the bridge has served the water supply system of Segovia.

How it all began?

Early settlements on the site of the future city of Rome arose at the Apennine Peninsula, in the Valley of the Tiber River, in the early I millennium BC. e. According to legend, the Romans occur from the Trojan refugees, founding the city of Alba-Long in Italy. Rome itself, according to legend, was laid by Romulozh, the grandson of Tsar Alba-Long, in 753 BC. e. As in Greek polishes, in the early period of the history of Rome, they were ruled by the kings who were actually such power, as well as Greek. With the king Tyran Tarquinia, the national uprising occurred, during which the royal power was destroyed and Rome turned into an aristocratic republic. Its population was clearly divided into two groups - a privileged class of patrician and possessed significantly less rights of the plebeian. Patricia was considered a member of the ancient Roman kind, only from Patriches elected Senate (chief government body). A significant part of his early history is the struggle of the plebeian for the expansion of their rights and turning the members of their estates in full Roman citizens.

Ancient Rome Different from the Greek cities-states, since it was in completely different geographical conditions - a single Apennine Peninsula with extensive plains. Therefore, since the early period of his history, his citizens were forced to compete and deal with neighboring Italian tribes. The defeated peoples submitted to this great empire or on the rights of the Allies, or simply included in the republic, and the conquered population did not receive the rights of Roman citizens, often turning to slaves. The most powerful opponents of Rome in IV century. BC e. There were Etruscan and Samnits, as well as separate Greek colonies in the south of Italy (Great Greece). And yet, despite the fact that the Romans often begun with Greek colonists, a more developed Ellinian culture had a noticeable impact on the culture of the Romans. It has reached the point that the ancient Roman deities began to identify with their Greek analogues: Jupiter - with Zeus, Mars - with Ares, Venus - with Aphrodite, etc.

Wars of the Roman Empire

The most intense moment in the confrontation of the Romans with the South Italians and the Greeks was the war 280-272. BC er, when Pyrre intervened in the course of hostilities, the king of the state of Epirus, who was in the Balkans. In the end, Pierre and his allies were broken, and by 265 BC. e. The Roman Republic united the entire central and southern Italy under its authority.

Continuing the war with Greek colonists, the Romans collided in Sicily with the Carthage (Punic) power. In 265 BC e. The so-called Punic Wars began, which lasted until 146 BC. e., almost 120 years old. Initially, Romans were led martialctions against the Greek colonies in the east of Sicily, primarily against the largest of them - the cities of Syracuse. Then the captures of the Carthaginian lands in the east of the island began, which led to the fact that the Carthaginians, who had a strong fleet, attacked Romans. After the first defeats, the Romans managed to create their own fleet and defeat the Carthage courts in the battle of the Egat Islands. The world was signed, according to which in 241 BC. e. All Sicily, considered a resident of the Western Mediterranean, became the property of the Roman Republic.

Carthaginian discontent results First Punish War, as well as the gradual penetration of the Romans into the territory of the Iberian Peninsula, which Karfhagen owned, led to the second military collision between the powers. In 219 BC e. The Carthaginian commander Hannibal Barki captured the Spanish city of Sagunt, the ally of the Romans, then passed through South Gallia and, overcoming the Alps, invaded the territory of the Roman republic itself. Hannibal supported the part of Itali tribes, dissatisfied with the rule of Rome. In 216 BC e. In Apulia, in the bloody battle of Cannes, Hannibal surrounded and almost completely destroyed the Roman army, which was commanded by Guy Terentia Warron and Emily Paul. However, it was not able to take a strongly fortified city of Hannibal and eventually was forced to leave the Apennine Peninsula.

The war was transferred to the north of Africa, where the Carthage and other settlements of the Funites were located. In 202 BC e. Roman commander Scypion defeated the army of Hannibal at the town of Zama, south of Carthage, after which the world was signed on the conditions dictated by the Romans. Carthaginians lost all their possessions outside Africa, all military courts and combat elephants were obliged to transfer to the Romans. By winning the second Punic war, the Roman republic became the most powerful state in the Western Mediterranean. The Third Punich War, held from 149 to 146 BC. e., drove to seeking an already defeated opponent. In the spring 14b G. BC. e. Carthage was taken and destroyed, and its inhabitants.

Defensive Walls of the Roman Empire

The relief from the Tracaana column depicts the scene (see on the left) from the times of the Thai wars; Legionnaires (they are without helmets) are built from rectangular pieces of turf camping camp. When Roman warriors turned out to be in enemy lands, the construction of such fortifications was commonplace.

"The fear gave rise to beauty, and the ancient Rome changed the same way, changing the previous - peaceful - politics and starting to raise the towers hastily, so soon all seven of his hills spurled the armor of the continuous wall" - so wrote one Roman about powerful fortifications built around Rome In 275 to protect against ready. According to the example of the capital, large cities throughout the Roman Empire, many of which have long been "crossed" the limits of the previous walls, hurried to strengthen their defensive frontiers.

The construction of urban walls was extremely laborious work. Usually around the settlement broke through two deep RVA, and between them a high earth shaft was absorbed. He served as a kind of layer between two concentric walls. Exterior the wall went to the ground by 9 mSo that the enemy can not do the subpople, and upstairs was equipped with a wide dear for sentinals. The inside wall climbed a few more meters to make the shelling of the city. Such strengthening almost did not disappear: their thickness reached 6 m, And stone blocks were driven to each other with metal brackets - for greater strength.

When the walls were completed, it was possible to start the routine. Over the opening in the wall temporary wooden arch - Formwork. On top of it, skilled bricklayers, moving on both sides to the middle, put wedge-shaped plates, forming the bend of the arch. When the last - lock, or key, is the stone, the formwork was removed, and next to the first arch was taken to build a second. And so until the entire passage to the city turned out to be under the semicircular roof - a box arch.

Walking posts on the gate, guarding peace, were often real small fortresses: there were military barracks, weapons and food reserves. In Germany, the so-called so-called (see below) is perfect. On her lower climb instead of the windows were loopholes, and round towers were raised on both sides - that it would be more convenient to lead the shelling of the enemy. During the siege, a powerful grill descended on the gate.

The wall, built in the III century around Rome (19 km in length, 3.5 m in thickness and 18 m in height), has 381 tower and 18 gates with lowered lattices. The wall was constantly repaired and strengthened, so she served the city until the XIX century, that is, to the improvement of artillery. Two thirds of this wall stand and so on.

The majestic port of the nigra (that is, a black gate), raising 30 m in height, personifies the power of the imperial Rome. The fortified gate flanked by two towers, one of which is significantly damaged. The once gate was entry for the city walls of the II century n. e. In August, Trevirorum (later tried), the northern capital of the Empire.

Aqueducts of the Roman Empire. The road of the life of the imperial city

The famous three-tiered aqueduct in southern France (see above), surtered through the Gare River and its lowland valley - the so-called Garden Bridge, is as beautiful as functional. This structure stretching 244 m in length, daily supply from a distance of 48 km about 22 tons of water to the city of Nemous (now). The Gardens Bridge still remains one of the most wonderful works of Roman engineering art.

For Romans, famous for achievements in engineering, the subject of special pride were aquavely. About 250 million gallons of fresh water came to the ancient Rome every day. In 97 N. e. Sex Julius Frontin, Rome Water Supply System, rhetorically drawn: "Who dares to compare with idle pyramids or any other - albeit with the famous Creations of the Greeks - these great structures, without which a man's life is unthinkable?" At the end of his grandeur, the city acquired eleven aqueducts, for which water ran from the southern and eastern hills. Engineering turned into real art: It seemed that graceful arches were easily crushed by obstacles, besides, decorating the landscape. Romans quickly "shared" with their achievements with the rest of the Roman Empire regions, and still you can see the remnants numerous aqueducts In France, Spain, Greece, North Africa and Asia Minor.

To provide water provincial cities, whose population has already exhausted local reserves, and to build thermals and fountains there, Roman engineers paved the channels to rivers and sources, often removed on dozens of miles. Stone under a slight inclination (Vitruvius recommended minimal 1: 200), precious moisture fled on the stone pipes that ran through countryside (and for the most part were stubborn in underground tunnelsor Rips, repeated the outlines of the landscape) and eventually achieved the features of the city. There, the water was safely entered into public tanks. When rivers or gorges came across the pipeline, the builders moved the arches through them, allowed preserving the former soft bias and maintain a continuous flow of water.

So that the angle of the water drop remained constant, the landing resorted to the thunder and the Horobat, as well as to the diopter that measured horizontal angles. Again, the bulk of the work was on the shoulders of the troops. In the middle of the 2nd century AD One military engineer was asked to understand the difficulties arising from the construction of akwalk in Saldah (in the current Algeria). Two detachments of workers began to dig a tunnel in a hill, moving towards each other from opposite sides. The engineer immediately understood what's the matter. "I measured both tunnels," he wrote later, "and found that the sum of their length exceeds the width of the hill." Tunnels simply did not meet. He found a way out of the position, drumming between the tunnels of the well and connecting them, so that the water began to flow as it should. The city honored the engineer of the monument.

The inner position of the Roman Empire

A further strengthening of the external power of the Rome republic simultaneously was accompanied by a deep inner crisis. Such a significant territory could no longer be managed in old, i.e., when organizing power characteristic of the city-state. In the ranks of Roman military leaders, the commander, claiming to possess the entire fullness of power, like ancient Greek Tirana or Hellenic lords in the Middle East. The first of these Vladyk was the louches of Cornelius Sulla, who captured in 82 BC. e. Rome and became a full-awake dictator. The enemies of Sulla were ruthlessly interrupted according to the lists (samples), which the dictator itself prepared. In 79 BC e. Sulla voluntarily refused power, but this could no longer return it to the previous management. A long period began civil wars in the Roman Republic.

External position of the Roman Empire

Meanwhile, the stable development of the empire was threatened not only by external enemies and ambitious politicians who fought for power. Periodically in the territory of the republic broke out the rebellion of slaves. The largest such insurgence was the speech under the leadership of the Fracinian Spartak, lasting almost three years (from 73 to 71 BC). The rebels managed to defeat only the joint efforts of the three most skillful commander of Rome of that time - a brand of Licinia Crassa, a brand of Licinia Luculla and Gneja Pompei.

Later, Pompeii, famous for his victories in the east above the Armenians and the Pontic King Mithridate VI, entered into a fight for the highest power in the republic with another famous military leader - Ham Julia Caesar. Caesar from 58 to 49 BC e. He managed to capture the territories of the Northern neighbors of the Roman Republic - Galov and even carried out the first invasion of the British Islands. In 49 BC e. Caesar joined Rome, where he was declared a dictator - a military ruler with unlimited rights. In 46 BC e. In the battle of Farsal (Greece), he broke Pompey - his main opponent. And in 45 G. BC. e. In Spain, with Munda, crushed the last explicit political opponents - the sons of Pompey, Gneja Jr. and Sex. At the same time, Caesar managed to enter into an alliance with the Egyptian queen Cleopatre, actually subordinating its vast country of government.

However, in 44 BC. e. Guy Julius Caesar A group of Republican conspirators was killed, at the head of which stood Mark, Brut and Guy Cassius Longin. Civil wars in the republic continued. Now the main members of the Caesar's nearest members became the most participants - Mark Anthony and Guy Octavian. At first they destroyed the killers of Caesar together, and later came to fight with each other. Anthony During this latter stage of civil wars in Rome, the Egyptian Queen Cleopatra supported. However, in 31 g. BC. e. In the battle of the Cape of Shares, the fleet of Anthony and Cleopatra was defeated by the ships of Octavian. The Queen of Egypt and its ally committed the life of suicide, and Octavian, finally in the Roman Republic, became an unlimited ruler of the gigantic power, which united under its authority almost all of the Mediterranean.

Octavian, in 27 BC e. Announced Augustus "Blessed", is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, although this title itself meant only the Supreme Commander, who won a significant victory. Officially, no one has canceled the Roman republic, and August preferred to be called princeps, that is, the first among senators. And yet, with the successors of Octavian, the republic became more and more to acquire the features of the monarchy, closer in its organization to the eastern despotic states.

His highest foreign policy power of the empire reached the Emperor Traian, which in 117 N. e. He won part of the lands of the strongest strong enemy of Rome in the East - the Parfyan Power. However, after the death of Trania, Parfyan managed to return the captured territories and soon moved to the offensive. Already with the successor to Trajan, the emperor Adriana, the empire was forced to pronounced defensive tactics, building powerful protective shafts on their borders.

Not only Parfyan bothered the Roman power; All the more frequent raids from the barbaric tribes from the north and east, in battles with which the Roman army often suffered sensitive defeats. Later, the Roman emperors even allowed separate groups of barbarians to settle on the territory of the Empire, provided that they would guard the boundaries from other hostile tribes.

In 284, the Roman Emperor Diocletian produced an important reform of a finally transformed the former Roman republic in the Imperial State. From now on, even the emperor became referred to something differently - "Dominus" ("Mr."), and at the courtyard, a complex ritual was introduced, borrowed from Eastern Lord at the same time, the empire was divided into two parts - Eastern and Western, at the head of each of which a special ruler, who received Title August. He was helped by a deputy called Caesar. After some time, August was supposed to pass the power of Caesar, and he retired himself. This more flexible system, along with improving the management of the provinces, led to the fact that this great state existed for another 200 years.

In IV century The dominant religion in the empire was Christianity, which also contributed to the strengthening of the inner unity of the power. Since 394, Christianity is already the only permitted religion in the empire. However, if the Eastern Roman Empire remained a sufficiently solid state, then Western weaker under the blows of barbarians. Several times (410 and 455), barbaric tribes captured and ruined Rome, and in 476, the leader of the German mercenaries of the ODOACR overthrow the last West emperor Romulus Augustus and announced himself with the ruler of Italy.

And although the Eastern Roman Empire has been preserved as a single country, and in 553 he even joined the whole territory of Italy, yet it was already a completely different state. It is not by chance that historians prefer to call him and consider his fate separately from history of ancient Rome.