Phonetic system of the language. Cheat sheet: Phonetic system of the Russian language Phonetic system of the Russian language abstract

Essay on the Russian language

"Phonetic system of the Russian language"

Phonetics- the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).

Without the pronunciation and perception by ear of the sounds that make up the sound shell of words, verbal communication is impossible. On the other hand, for verbal communication, it is extremely important to distinguish the spoken word from others that are similar in sound.

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish between significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

1. Phonet Russian language means

The phonetic means of the Russian language include:

Stress (verbal and phrasal)

Intonation.

1.1 The shortest, minimal, non-segmented sound unit that stands out during the successive sound division of a word is called the sound of speech.

Speech sounds have different qualities and therefore serve as a means of distinguishing words in the language. Often words differ in only one sound, the presence of an extra sound compared to another word, the order of the sounds.

For example: jackdaw - pebble,

fight - howl,

mouth - mole,

nose - dream.

The traditional classification of speech sounds is their division into consonants and vowels.

v Consonants differ from vowels in the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity during pronunciation.

The consonants are different:

2) at the place of noise generation,

3) according to the method of noise generation,

4) by the absence or presence of softness.

Participation of noise and voice. According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorants are called consonants formed with the help of voice and slight noise: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [g], ["], [s ], [h "], , formed by noise with the participation of the voice. Noisy deaf consonants include: [p], [p "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s"] , [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], formed only with the help of one noise, without the participation of the voice.

Location of noise. Depending on which active speech organ (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, the consonants can be labial [b], [n] [m] and labiodental [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Anterior-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-tooth [h], [w], [g], [r] ; middle-lingual - middle-palatal; posterior lingual - posterior palate [g], [k], [x].

Noise generation methods. Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive [b], [n], [d], [t], [g], [k], fricative [c], [f], [s], [h ], [w], [g], [x], affricates [c], [h], stop-pass: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants) [ R].

Hardness and softness of consonants. The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of the midpalatal articulation of the tongue, which complements the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds formed with such additional articulation are called soft, and those formed without it are called hard.

A characteristic feature of the consonant system is the presence of pairs of sounds in it, correlative in deafness-voicedness and in hardness-softness. The correlation of paired sounds lies in the fact that in some phonetic conditions (before vowels) they differ as two different sounds, and in other conditions (at the end of a word) they do not differ and coincide in their sound.

For example: rose - dew and rose - grew [grew - grew].

So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in deafness-voicedness.

The correlative series of deaf and voiced consonants is represented by 12 pairs of sounds. Paired consonants are distinguished by the presence of a voice (voiced) or its absence (deaf). Sounds [l], [l "], [m], [m"], [n], [n "], [r], [r "] - unpaired voiced, [x], [c], [h "] - unpaired deaf.

The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:

By way	Local	labial	dental labial	dental	medium palatine	back- palatine
	explosive

	fricatives

	Affricants
Sonorant
	explosive

The composition of consonant sounds, taking into account the deafness-voicedness correlation, is shown in the following table

(["], ["] - long hissing, paired in deafness-voicedness; compare [dro" and], ["and]).

The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, but do not differ in others, which leads to the presence of a correlative series of hard and soft sounds in the consonant system. So, [l] - [l "] are distinguished before the vowel [o] (compare: lot - ice [lot - l "from], and before the sound [e] not only [l] - [l"], but also other paired hard-soft sounds (cf .: [l "eu], [c" eu], [b" eu], etc.).

Long and double consonants. In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonants - soft hissing ["] and ["] (yeast, cabbage soup). These long hissing sounds are not opposed to the sounds [w], [g], which are unpaired hard ones. As a rule, long consonants in Russian are formed only at the junctions of morphemes and are a combination of sounds. For example, in the word reason [rL udyk], a long sound arose at the junction of the prefix raz- and the root court-, cf .: [pL "elk], [yl], [l" c "ik] (fake, sewed, pilot). The sounds that arise in these cases cannot be defined as long ones, since they are devoid of a distinctive function, they are not opposed to short sounds.In essence, such "long" sounds are not long, but double.

Cases of long consonants (quarrel, yeast, etc.) in the roots of Russian words are rare. Words with double consonants in the roots are usually foreign (telegram, gamma, antenna, etc.). Such words in live pronunciation lose vowel length, which is often reflected in modern orthography (literature, attack, corridor, etc.).

Sound laws in the field of consonants:

1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: the threshold is a vice, young is a hammer, goats is a braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - drive up [pldjest], etc.

Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

1) before a pause: [pr "ishol post] (the train came); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [c]: [praf he ], [our sat], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind).

2. Assimilation of consonants by voiced and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.

By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. The voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than the stunning of voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (shackle - darling), [in "and e with" t "and - in" and e with "t" and] (to carry - to lead), [fp "bp" and e m "yeshka - fp" bp "and e m" yeshka] (alternately - interspersed).

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Ltjest] (departure), yours, yours.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pLhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to business), [zd" elm] (with business); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-th] (a year), [before] (daughter); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-klzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).

3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

The composition of consonants, taking into account the correlative series of hard and soft sounds, is presented in the following table:

Softness assimilation has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.

All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, villages), etc .; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).

Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (compare the end - the ring).

Dental [h], [s], [n], [p], [e], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening. They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "eu]; compare [L" op]) and before the particle ([grew - l" and]; compare [rLsl" and]) ( here is the forest, otter, did it grow, did it grow).

Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ks" t "], [v" and e z "d" e], [f-ka "b], [kaz" n "] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Softening [s], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them in front of soft labials: [raz "d" and e l "it"], [r's" t "and e nut"], [b" no "-n" and e in), [b" and e s "-s" silt] (divide, stretch, without it, without strength). Before soft labial softening [s], [s], [d], [ t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex], [z"in"cr"], [d"in"cr" ], [t "v" kr "], [s" p "kt"], [s "-n" them], [is "-pkch"], [rLz "d" kt "] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

The labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "kn" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).

These cases of assimilative softness of consonants show that the action of assimilation in the modern Russian literary language is not always distinguished by a strict sequence.

4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in hardness does not occur: [prLs "it"] - [proz "b", [mllt "it"] - [mllLd" ba] (ask - request, threshing - threshing), etc. [l "] is not subjected to assimilation: [floor" b] - [zLpol "nyj] (field, outdoor).

5. Assimilation of teeth before sizzling. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing .

Complete assimilation of [h], [s] occurs: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [at "], [rLat"] (compress, unclench); [yt "], [rLyt"] (sew, embroider); ["from], [rL" from] (account, calculation); [rLzno "ik], [izvo" ik] (peddler, cab driver);

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [arm], [arm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "and e ar], [bi e ar] (without heat, without a ball).

The combination of zzh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh"]: [on "b] (later), (I drive); [in "and], [dro" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [g] can be pronounced.

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long ["],: [L" from] (report), (fkra b] (in short) .

6. Simplifying consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [posn], [w "and e sl" willows], [g "igansk" and] , [h "ustv", [s" heart], [sonts] (oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun).

7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra op "it"] (time + quarrel), [ylk] (with reference), [kLlo s ] (column+n+th); [Ld "e ki] (Odessa + sk + y).

v Vowel sounds differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.

The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels:

1) the degree of elevation of the tongue

2) the place of the rise of the tongue

3) participation or non-participation of the lips.

The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, on the state of which the quality of the vowel depends.

According to the degree of vertical rise of the language, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: upper vowels [i], [s], [y]; vowels of the middle rise e [e], [o]; low vowel [a].

The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels [i], e [e]; middle vowels [s], [a] and back vowels [y], [o].

The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized (non-rounded) [a], e [e], [u], [s].

Table of vowel sounds of the modern Russian literary language

Sound law in the field of vowels.

Vowel reduction. The change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first prestressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in weak position of the second degree undergo more reduction than vowels in weak position of the first degree.

Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vLly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [b "and e yes] (trouble), etc.

Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parlvos] (locomotive); [kyargLnda] (Karaganda); [kulkLla] (bells); [p "l" and e on] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [exclamation] (exclamation), etc.

1.2 In the speech stream it differs stress phrasal, tact and verbal.

Verbal stress is the emphasis during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is one of the main external signs independent word. Word stress delimits words and word forms that are identical in sound composition (cf .: clubs - clubs, holes - holes, hands - hands). Service words and particles usually do not have an accent and are adjacent to independent words, making up one phonetic word with them: [under-mountain], [on-side], [that's it].

The Russian language is characterized by power (dynamic) stress, in which the stressed syllable stands out in comparison with non-stressed syllables with greater tension of articulation, especially the vowel sound. A stressed vowel is always longer than its corresponding unstressed sound. Russian stress is different: it can fall on any syllable (exit, exit, exit).

The diversity of stress is used in Russian to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms (organ - organ) and individual forms of various words (my - mine), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of the word (chaos - chaos) or gives the word a stylistic coloring (well done - Well done). The mobility and immobility of the stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress either remains in the same place of the word (garden, -a, -y, -om, -e, -s, -ov, etc. .), or moves from one part of the word to another (city, -a, -y, -om, -e; -a, -ov, etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms (buy - buy, legs - legs, etc.).

In some cases, the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning.

For example: cottage cheese and cottage cheese, differently and differently, butt and butt, etc.

Words can be unstressed or weakly stressed. Functional words and particles are usually devoid of stress, but they sometimes take on stress, so that the preposition with the independent word following it has one stress: [in winter], [out of town], [under-evening].

Weakly impacted can be disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, connectives to be and become, some of the introductory words.

Some categories of words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, secondary stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one is in the second, for example: drvnerusskiy. These words include:

1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition (aircraft building),

2) complex abbreviated (gfstelecenter),

3) words with prefixes after-, over-, archi-, trans-, anti-, etc. (transatlantic, post-October),

4) some foreign words (pfstscriptum, pfstfaktum).

clocked stress is the emphasis in the pronunciation of a more semantic word within the speech tact.

phrasal stress is the emphasis in the pronunciation of the most important word in the semantic relation within the statement (phrase); such an accent is one of the clock. In the example above, the phrasal stress falls on the word dreams. Phrasal stress distinguishes sentences by meaning with the same composition and word order (cf .: It's snowing and It's snowing).

Clock and phrase stress is also called logical.

1.3 Intonation distinguishes sentences with the same composition of words (with the same place of phrasal stresses) (cf .: Snow melts and Snow melts?). The intonations of a message, a question, an urge, etc., differ.

Intonation has an objective linguistic meaning: regardless of the functional load, intonation always combines words into phrases, and phrases do not exist without intonation. Subjective differences in the intonation of a phrase have no linguistic significance.

Intonation is closely related to other levels of the language, and, above all, to phonology and syntax.

Intonation is related to phonology by the fact that it belongs to the sound side of the language and that it is functional, but it differs from phonology in that intonation units have semantic significance in themselves: for example, rising intonation is mainly correlated with questioning or incompleteness of a statement. The relationship between intonation and sentence syntax is not always unambiguous. In some cases, the grammatical patterns on which the statement is built may have a typical intonational design. So, sentences with a particle whether, represent a grammatical model for constructing an interrogative statement.

Different syntactic structures can be framed by the same intonation, and the same syntactic structure can be framed by different intonations. The statements change accordingly. This indicates a certain autonomy of intonation in relation to syntax.

2. Phonetic units of the Russian language

From the side of rhythmic-intonation, our speech represents a speech flow, or a chain of sounds. This chain is divided into links, or phonetic units of speech: phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables and sounds.

· Phrase- this is the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other phrases by a pause.

· speech beat(or syntagma) most often consists of several words combined with one stress.

The speech beat is divided into fonetic words, i.e. independent words together with unstressed functional words and particles adjoining them.

Words are divided into proper phonetic units - syllables, and the latter on sounds.

2.1 syllables

From the point of view of education, from the physiological side, a syllable is a sound or several sounds pronounced with one expiratory push.

From the point of view of sonority, from the acoustic side, a syllable is a sound segment of speech in which one sound is distinguished by the greatest sonority in comparison with neighboring ones - the previous and subsequent ones. Vowels, as the most sonorous, are usually syllabic, and consonants are non-syllabic, but sonorants (p, l, m, n), as the most sonorous of the consonants, can form a syllable. Syllables are divided into open and closed depending on the position of the syllabic sound in them.

An open syllable is a syllable ending in a syllable-forming sound: va-ta. A closed syllable is called a syllable ending in a non-syllable sound: there, barking.

A syllable that begins with a vowel sound is called undisguised: a-orta. Covered is a syllable that begins with a consonant sound: ba-tone.

The basic law of the syllable division in Russian.

The structure of a syllable in Russian obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in the syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous.

The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words below, if the sonority is conventionally denoted by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorous consonants, 7 - noisy consonants. Wow: 1-3/1-3; boat: 2-3/1-1-3; ma-slo: 2-3/1-2-3; wave: 1-3-2/2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of the syllable section is realized at the beginning of a non-initial syllable.

The initial and final syllables in Russian are built according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: le-to: 2-3/1-3; glass: 1-3/1-2-3.

The syllable section when combining significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase: us Turkey - us-Tur-tsi-i; nasturtiums (flowers) - on-stur-qi-i.

A particular pattern of the syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: Odessa [o/de/sit]; art [and/beauty/stvo]; part [ra / become / sya]; from the wall [ste / ny], therefore more often - [with / ste / ny].

2.2 Sounds

Speech sounds, without having their own meaning, are a means for distinguishing words. The study of the distinctive ability of speech sounds is a special aspect of phonetic research and is called phonology.

The phonological, or functional, approach to the sounds of speech occupies a leading position in the study of language; the study of the acoustic properties of speech sounds (the physical aspect) is closely related to phonology.

To designate a sound, when it is considered from the phonological side, the term is used phoneme.

As a rule, the sound shells of words and their forms are different, if we exclude homonyms. Words that have the same sound composition may differ in the place of stress (flour - flour, flour - flour) or the order of the same sounds (kot - tok). Words may also contain such smallest, further indivisible units of speech sounding, which independently distinguish between the sound shells of words and their forms, for example: bak, side, beech; in these words, the sounds [a], [o], [y] distinguish the sound shells of these words and act as phonemes. The words tank and barrel differ in writing, but are pronounced the same [bLchok]: the sound shells of these words do not differ, because the sounds [a] and [o] in the above words appear in the first pre-stressed syllable and lose the distinctive role that they play in words tank - side. Consequently, the phoneme serves to distinguish the sound shell of words and their forms. Phonemes do not differentiate the meaning of words and forms, but only their sound shells, indicate differences in meaning, but do not reveal their nature.

The different quality of the sounds [a] and [o] in the words bak - bok and bachok - bok is explained by the different place that these sounds occupy in words in relation to word stress. In addition, when pronouncing words, one sound can influence the quality of another, and as a result, the qualitative nature of the sound is determined by the position of the sound - the position after or in front of another sound, between other sounds. In particular, for the quality of vowels, the position in relation to the stressed syllable is important, and for consonants, the position at the end of the word. So, in the words horn - horns [rock] - [rLga] the consonant sound [g] (at the end of the word) is stunned and pronounced like [k], and the vowel sound [o] (in the first pre-stressed syllable) sounds like a [L] . Consequently, the quality of the sounds [o] and [g] in these words turns out to be more or less dependent on the position of these sounds in the word.

The concept of a phoneme implies a distinction between independent and dependent features of speech sounds. Independent and dependent signs of sounds correlate differently for different sounds and in different phonetic conditions. So, for example, the sound [z] in the words created and the section is characterized by two independent features: the method of formation (slit sound) and the place of formation (dental sound). In addition to independent features, the sound [h] in the word created [created] has one dependent feature - voicedness (before voiced [d]), and in the word section [rLz "d" el] - two dependent features determined by the position of the sound: voicedness ( before voiced [d]) and softness (before soft dental [d "]). It follows that in some phonetic conditions, independent signs predominate in sounds, while in others, dependent ones.

Accounting for independent and dependent features clarifies the concept of a phoneme. Independent qualities form independent phonemes that are used in the same (identical) position and distinguish the sound shells of words. Dependent qualities of sound exclude the possibility of using the sound in an identical position and deprive the sound of a distinctive role and therefore do not form independent phonemes, but only varieties of the same phoneme. Consequently, a phoneme is the shortest sound unit, independent in its quality and therefore serving to distinguish the sound shells of words and their forms.

The quality of the vowels [a], [o], [y] in the words bak, buk, buk is not phonetically determined, does not depend on the position, and the use of these sounds is identical (between identical consonants, under stress). Therefore, the distinguished sounds have a distinctive function and, therefore, are phonemes.

In the words mother, mint, mint [ma * t", m "*at, m" dt "] the stress sound [a] differs in quality, since it is used not in the same, but in different positions (before the soft, after the soft, between soft consonants). Therefore, the sound [a] in the words mother, mint, mint does not have a directly distinctive function and does not form independent phonemes, but only varieties of the same phoneme<а>.

Degree different function phonemes are expressed in terms strong phoneme And weak phoneme.

Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the largest number of sound units are distinguished, for example, vowels in a stressed position. Such a phonetic position is called a strong position; stressed vowels are strong phonemes, and their phonetic position is a strong position.

Weak phonemes appear in those positions in which a smaller number of sound units are distinguished. This phonetic position is called a weak position. So, in an unstressed position, vowels appear in a smaller number of sound units (cf. the coincidence in the first pre-stressed syllable of the sounds [o] and [a]: shaft - [vLly], vol - [vLly]). Unstressed vowels are weak phonemes, and their phonetic position is a weak position.

Strong and weak phonemes have different distinctiveness: the distinctive function of phonemes in strong positions has the greatest degree, in weak positions - less.

Basic type of strong vowel phonemes. The main type of a strong vowel phoneme is the variety of this phoneme that is least dependent on phonetic conditions, i.e. stressed at the beginning of a word before a solid consonant (arch, smallpox, ride, from a distance, urn).

Varieties of strong vowel phonemes. Strong vowel phonemes, differing under stress, change their quality depending on the position before the consonant and after the consonant of one quality or another, at the absolute beginning and at the absolute end of the word and appear in their different varieties - more anterior or posterior, which are presented in the following table variations of vowel phonemes:

At the beginning of a word	After hard consonants	After soft consonants
(I) not in front of soft	(II) before soft	(III) not in front of soft	(IV) before soft	(V) not before soft	(VI) before soft
[A] Oh	[A*] ah	[A] ta, so	[A] mother*	[A] although they want*	[A] crush
[O] Oh	[O] axis*	[O] then, current	[O] salt*	[O] everything, with everything*	[O] aunt
[e] ep	[e] er			[e] not no	[e] stranded
[And] their	[u] Name	[s] we, washed	[s] dust*	[And] sleep, sleep	[u] miles
[y] wow	[y] hive*	[y] that, here	[y] path*	[y] drink, drink*	[y] trousers

Comparison of variations of strong vowel phonemes (see table) shows that they differ only in the place of formation and that the place of formation of vowel phonemes (a series of vowels) is not a defining feature of a vowel phoneme.

The given scheme of variations of strong vowel phonemes should be supplemented with an indication of the pronunciation of stressed strong phonemes after backlingual and hard sibilants.

1. After back-lingual (g, k, x), not before soft consonants, the same vowels are pronounced as in position I; moreover, before [e] and [and] back-lingual ones act in their soft varieties: [how], [com], [godfather], [to "eat], [to" it].

2. After back-lingual, before soft consonants, the same vowels are pronounced as in position II, and back-lingual before [e] and [and] appear in their soft variations: [ka * m "bn"], [ko * s" t "], [ku * s "t" ik], [k "kp" and], [k "ys" t "].

3. After hard hissing (w, w), before hard and soft consonants, all vowel phonemes, except<е>, change in the same way as in positions III and IV, and the phoneme<е>performs in variation<э>.

Weak vowel phonemes (reduced vowels) of the first prestressed syllable. The quality of weak vowel phonemes turns out to be dependent, on the one hand, on the position in an unstressed syllable and, on the other hand, on the quality of neighboring consonants. When determining the phonetic positions for the vowel phonemes of the first prestressed syllable, only the quality of the preceding consonant is practically taken into account, which makes it possible to distinguish between the following phonetic positions:

I - at the beginning of a word, II - after a double solid consonant. III - after a soft consonant, IV - after a hard hissing (variants of vowel phonemes).

The system of weak vowel phonemes of the first prestressed syllable (varieties of weak phonemes) in comparison with the system of strong vowel phonemes is shown in the following table:

At the beginning of a word (I)	After a double solid consonant (II)	After a soft consonant (III)	After a hard sizzling (IV)
[? ] [?rba]	[?] [br?la]	[and e] [p "and e so]	[?] [zh?ra]
[?] [?kno]	[?] [d?bro]	[and e] [m "and e dock]	[?] [sh? f "or]
[s e] [s e tash]	[s e] [shi e one hundred*]	[and e] [l "and e juice]	[s e] [shy stock]
[And] [So]	[s] [py l "it]	[u] [p"ul"it"]	[s] [zhyrok]
[y] [lesson]	[y] [there]	[y] [with "*oud]	[y] [noise"et"]

Phoneme options<а>, <о>, <е>of the first prestressed syllable after hard consonants coincide with the variants of these phonemes at the absolute beginning of the word. These are the sounds [L], [s e].

The phoneme is an exception.<и>, which at the absolute beginning of the word is realized by the sound [and]: [Ivan], and in the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants - by the sound [s]: [s-yvan'm].

Variants of vowel phonemes of the second prestressed syllable. In all pre-stressed syllables, except for the first, weak vowel phonemes are in a weak position of the second degree. This position has two varieties: I - after a double hard consonant and II - after a soft consonant. After a solid consonant, vowel phonemes are realized by the sounds [b], [s], [y]; after soft - sounds [b], [and], [y]. For example: [b] - [barLban], [kulkLla], [s] - [help out "], [y] - [murLv "k], [b] - [ptLchok], [and] - [k "islLta] , [* y] - [l "* ubLpytny].

Variants of vowel phonemes of stressed syllables. Weak vowel phonemes of stressed syllables differ in the degree of reduction: the weakest reduction is observed in the final open syllable. There are two positions of weak phonemes in stressed syllables: after hard consonants and after soft consonants.

The system of variants of vowel phonemes of stressed syllables is presented in the table.

After hard consonants	After soft consonants
In a non-final syllable	In final syllable	In a non-final syllable	In final syllable
[s] - [and] [survive] - (survived) [survive] - (squeezed out)	[s] - [b] [naked] - (naked) [holm] - (naked)	[and] - [b] [bud "yt" b] - (wake up) [be "bt" b] - (you will)	[and] - [b] [with "un" im] - (blue) [with "un" bm] - (blue)
		[b] - [b] [cl "dh" bm "and] - (nags) [cl "dh" bm "and] - (nags)	[b] - [b] [cl "dh" bm] - (nags) [cl "dh" bm] - (nags)
[y] [body] - (body)	[y] [frame] - (frame)	[y] [pLpol " ear] - (on a field)	[y] [pop" y] - (on the field)

As the table shows, after solid consonants, vowels [s], [b], [y] are distinguished; moreover, the sounds [s] and [b] are weakly opposed. After soft consonants, vowels [i], [b], [b], [* y] are distinguished; moreover, the sounds [i] - [b], [b] - [b] are distinguished by a weak distinction.

The change of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, forms phonemic series. So, vowel phonemes, identical in place in the morpheme cos-, form a phonemic series<о> - <Л> - <ъ>: [braids] - [kLsa] - [kasLr "and], and the consonant phoneme<в>morphemes becoming - begins a phonemic series<в> - <в"> - <ф> - <ф">: [charters] - [charter "it"] - [ustaf] - [ustaf"].

The phonemic series is an essential element of the structure of the language, since the identity of the morpheme is based on it. The composition of phonemes of the same morpheme always corresponds to a certain phonemic series. Instrumental inflections in the words window-ohm and garden-ohm [Lknom] - [sadm], water-oh and mod-oh [vLdo] - [mod] are pronounced differently. However, these inflections ([-om] - [-bm], [-o] - [b]) are the same morpheme, since phonemes change in their composition<о>And<ъ>belonging to the same phonemic series.

Conclusion

Thus, the phonetic system of the Russian language consists of significant units of speech:

§ word forms

§ phrases and sentences

for transmission and distinction, which are the phonetic means of the language:

SH accent

Sh intonation.

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Essay on the Russian language

Phonetic system of the Russian language

Introduction

Phonetics- the science of the sound side of human speech. The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos "sound, voice" (phone sound).

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish between significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

PhoneticfacilitiesRussianlanguage

The phonetic means of the Russian language include:

Stress (verbal and phrasal)

Intonation.

The shortest, minimal, non-segmented sound unit that stands out during the successive sound division of a word is called soundspeeches.

For example: jackdaw - pebble,

fight - howl,

mouth - mole,

nose - dream.

The traditional classification of speech sounds is their division into consonants and vowels.

Consonants differ from vowels in the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity during pronunciation.

The consonants are different:

2) at the place of noise generation,

3) according to the method of noise generation,

4) by the absence or presence of softness.

The location of the noise. Depending on which active speech organ (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual. If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, the consonants can be labial [b], [n] [m] and labiodental [c], [f]. Lingual are divided into front-lingual, middle-lingual and back-lingual. Anterior-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-tooth [h], [w], [g], [r] ; middle-lingual - middle-palatal; posterior lingual - posterior palate [g], [k], [x].

Noise generation methods

Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive [b], [n], [d], [t], [g], [k], fricative [c], [f], [s], [h ], [w], [g], [x], affricates [c], [h], stop-pass: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants) [ R].

For example: rose - dew and rose - grew [grew - grew].

So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants in deafness-voicedness.

The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:

By way		dental and labial	mid-palatal	posterior palatine
	explosive

	fricatives

	Affricants
Sonorant
	explosive

The composition of consonant sounds, taking into account the deafness-voicedness correlation, is shown in the following table

(["], ["] - long hissing, paired in deafness-voicedness; compare [dro" and], ["and]).

The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, but do not differ in others, which leads to the presence of a correlative series of hard and soft sounds in the consonant system. So, [l] - [l "] are distinguished before the vowel [o] (cf .: lot - ice [lot - l "from], and before the sound [e] not only [l] - [l"], but also other paired hard-soft sounds (cf .: [l "eu], [c" eu], [b" eu], etc.).

Long and double consonants

In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonants - soft hissing ["] and ["] (yeast, cabbage soup). These long hissing sounds are not opposed to the sounds [w], [g], which are unpaired hard ones. As a rule, long consonants in Russian are formed only at the junctions of morphemes and are a combination of sounds. For example, in the word reason [rL udyk], a long sound arose at the junction of the prefix raz- and the root court-, cf .: [pL "elk], [yl], [l" c "ik] (fake, sewed, pilot). The sounds that arise in these cases cannot be defined as long ones, since they are devoid of a distinctive function, they are not opposed to short sounds.In essence, such "long" sounds are not long, but double.

Sound laws in the field of consonants

Russian consonant vowel

Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: the threshold is a vice, young is a hammer, goats is a braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - drive up [pldjest], etc.

Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

1) before a pause: [pr "ishol post] (a train has arrived);

2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [v]: [praf he], [sat ours], [slap jа], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind). Sonorant consonants are not stunned: rubbish, they say, com, he.

Assimilation of consonants by sonority and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Ltjest] (departure), yours, yours.

Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).

The composition of consonants, taking into account the correlative series of hard and soft sounds, is presented in the following table:

All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions:

1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, villages), etc .;

2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).

Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (compare the end - the ring).

The labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "kn" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).

These cases of assimilative softness of consonants show that the action of assimilation in the modern Russian literary language is not always distinguished by a strict sequence.

Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in hardness does not occur: [prLs "it"] - [proz "b", [mllt "it"] - [mllLd" ba] (ask - request, threshing - threshing), etc. [l "] is not subjected to assimilation: [floor" b] - [zLpol "nyj] (field, outdoor).

Assimilation of teeth before hissing. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing .

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [arm], [arm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "and e ar], [bi e ar] (without heat, without a ball).

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long ["],: [L" from] (report), (fkra b] (in short) .

Simplification of consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [posn], [w "and e sl" willows], [g "igansk" and] , [h "ustv", [s" heart], [sonts] (oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun).

Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra op "it"] (time + quarrel), [ylk] (with reference), [kLlo s ] (column+n+th); [Ld "e ki] (Odessa + sk + y).

Russian classificationvowels

Vowel sounds differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.

The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels:

1) the degree of elevation of the tongue

2) the place of the rise of the tongue

3) participation or non-participation of the lips.

The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, on the state of which the quality of the vowel depends.

According to the degree of vertical rise of the language, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: upper vowels [i], [s], [y]; vowels of the middle rise e [e], [o]; low vowel [a].

The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of three rows of vowels: front vowels [i], e [e]; middle vowels [s], [a] and back vowels [y], [o].

The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels into labialized (rounded) [o], [y] and non-labialized (non-rounded) [a], e [e], [u], [s].

Table of vowel sounds of the modern Russian literary language

Sound law in the field of vowels

Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vLly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [b "and e yes] (trouble), etc.

Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parlvos] (locomotive); [kyargLnda] (Karaganda); [kulkLla] (bells); [p "l" and e on] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [exclamation] (exclamation), etc.

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LECTURE 13

BASICS OF THEORETICAL PHONETICS

What is phonetics.

Sounds of speech.

positional changes.

Phoneme system and phonetic system.

1. What is phonetics. Learning the sound side of a language is called phonetics. Without knowing phonetics, it is impossible to understand modern writing, to understand grammar.

Phonetics did not immediately enter the science of language, even in the first half of the 19th century. scientists could not distinguish between sounds and letters. The need to compile grammars of native languages in the colonies, the study of unwritten dialects, and comparative historical descriptions of languages and their groups moved phonetics forward.

arose experimental phonetics associated with the use of sound recording instruments, which made it possible not “by ear”, but to objectively observe the differences and similarities of sounds. By the end of the XIX century. the successes of experimental phonetics absorbed the study of all other aspects of the sound structure of the language, and phonetics began to be regarded as a natural science.

The general theory of sound deals with the section of physics - acoustics. From the point of view of acoustics, sound is the result of the oscillatory movements of a body in any medium, carried out by the action of some driving force and available for auditory perception. Acoustics distinguishes the following features in sound:

- Height.

- strength, which depends on the amplitude of the oscillations. The larger it is, the stronger the sound.

- Duration or longitude, i.e. duration of a given sound in time.

- Timbre sound, i.e. individual quality of its acoustic features. The timbre of sound is a complex phenomenon, containing the fundamental tone and noise (or a combination of them), harmonic overtones (if there is a fundamental tone) and resonator tones.

The totality of the organs of speech forms speech apparatus(it includes: lips, teeth, tongue, palate, small tongue, epiglottis, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi - lungs, diaphragm). But the term should be understood conditionally. Language is a social phenomenon, not a biological one, and by nature there are no “organs of speech”. All of these organs have direct biological functions as the organs of smell, taste, respiration, food intake and processing. It is created by nature. The use of these organs for the production of speech sounds is entirely the merit of mankind, which gave them an additional "cult load". Speech apparatus:

The diaphragm, lungs, bronchi and trachea are the source of the air jet, which is used as a driving force in the formation of speech sounds;

Extension pipe - mouth and nose cavities - a source of overtones and resonator tones; in addition, various noises occur in the oral cavity when the organs are closed and narrowed.

2. Sounds of speech. The work of the organs of speech, aimed at the production of speech sounds, is called articulation. Articulation is made up of three parts: attack(or excursions) sound when the organs “go to work”, middle part(or excerpts) when the organs have settled for a given articulation, and indentation(or recursion) when the organs return to non-working state.

All sounds can be divided into vowels And consonants, and this division can come from both acoustic and articulatory features. Acoustically, speech sounds are divided into sonorous (sonorous) And noisy. exhalation force ( expiration) is not the same for different kinds of sounds: it is strongest in deaf consonants (they are called fortes - strong), weaker in voiced consonants (they are called lenes - weak), even weaker in sonorants and, finally, the weakest in vowels. It is easy to see the "weakness" of vowels and most sonorant consonants if you pronounce them without a voice.

Consonants the sounds of each mode of formation can be classified according to place of education which will answer the question Where? The place of formation is the point at which two organs approach or close on the path of the air stream and where noise occurs when the obstacle is directly overcome (explosive, affricate, fricative). When defining consonants in two coordinates - by the method and place of articulation, it should be remembered that all noisy consonants (i.e. fricatives, explosives and affricates) can be pronounced with a voice (voiced) and without a voice (deaf).

Signs characterizing consonants are not suitable for determining vowels. Consonants are clearly divided according to the method of formation, while vowels all belong to the same method - free passage. Consonants can be divided according to the place of formation, vowels do not have a place of formation, since the organs of speech do not form either a gap or a bow in the path of the air stream.

Articulatory vowels are distributed horizontally along row, i.e. in that part of the language that is raised when pronouncing a given sound: vowels front row(such as [i], [e], [æ]) and back row(for example, [u], [o], [a]), Russian [ы] and its rounded pair [ý] belong to the middle vowels.

Vertically the vowels are divided according to rise, i.e. according to the degree of elevation of one or another part of the tongue. Most simple circuit includes three lifts: upper(such as [u], [s], [y], [ý]), average(for example, [e], [o], [ö]) and lower are different a.

The idea of such a table was proposed by the English phonetist Bell (Bell) and developed by G. Sweet (H. Sweet, 1845-1912).

A table of nine (or 18) cells is convenient in that it is simple and clear, but due to its straightforward schematism, it somewhat distorts the true ratio of vowels. The newest phoneticians, criticizing this table, proposed another - in the form of a trapezoid and without internal division into cells - the table of the International Phonetic Association.

Vowels can vary in length. In Russian, vowels do not differ in longitude; all stressed vowels are longer, and in unstressed syllables they are shorter.

Speech is phonetically audio stream or sound chain. This chain breaks up into subordinate links: 1) phrases, 2) measures, 3) syllables, 4) sounds.

- Phrase is the largest phonetic unit; phrases are separated in a speech chain pauses, i.e. stopping the sound. The phrase is combined with intonation; Each spoken phrase has a specific intonation pattern. The phrase is divided into measures.

- Tact- this is a part of a phrase (one or more syllables), united by one stress. The beats are divided into syllables.

- Syllable- a part of a measure, consisting of one or more sounds. Syllables are divided into sounds.

Z sound of speech- This is the part of the syllable, pronounced in one articulation.

3. Positional changes. Since the sounds of speech are not pronounced in isolation, but in the sound chain of coherent speech, sounds can influence each other, especially neighboring ones.

Changes in sounds (mainly vowels) in unstressed syllables - reduction. Reduction is closely related to stress.

stress- this is the selection of a single syllable from a group of syllables. This is achieved in different languages by different means:

The strength or intensity of articulation is dynamic stress (otherwise: power, it is also called expiratory); There is a purely dynamic stress in the Czech language, where the stressed syllable is always the first in strength, but it is usually short, and the unstressed syllable following it may have longitude; for example ležák - "couch potato".

The pronunciation length is quantitative accent (otherwise: quantitative or longitudinal); Languages with purely quantitative stress are rare. For example, the modern modern Greek language, such is the Russian literary language, where the stressed syllable is always both the strongest and the longest.

The movement of the voice tone (ascending, descending or combined) against the background of the neutral tone of other syllables is tone accent (otherwise: melodic, musical). Pure tone stress - in Chinese, Dungan, Korean, Japanese; often it is paired with an intensification of the stressed syllable, as in Norwegian and Swedish.

The place of stress in a word can be fixed And unfixed; Thus, in Czech the stress is always on the first syllable, in Polish it is on the penultimate syllable, in most Turkic languages it is on the last. This single fixed accent. There is a fixed accent, but heterogeneous. Thanks to the ability to move around, stress in Russian plays a big role in grammar, distinguishing grammatical forms, for example: hands - hands, pour - pour and so on.

Accommodations(adaptations) occur between consonants and vowels, usually standing side by side, and consist in the fact that the subsequent sound adapts to the previous one - progressive accommodation, or the previous sound is adapted to the next - regressive accommodation. Accommodations are always a partial adaptation of sounds, because vowels and consonants - to sounds different type and can't quite match up. in various languages and different periods development of one language accommodate: consonants to vowels and vowels to consonants.

Assimilation(assimilations) occur between sounds of the same kind (for vowels with vowels, for consonants with consonants) and therefore can be complete, i.e. as a result of assimilation, two different sounds can become completely similar and become the same; therefore, one should distinguish between assimilation full, for example, knock down > [z‘b’it’], boat > [lotkλ], and incomplete, for example, rest > [óddy] > [ód:s].

dissimilation(dissimilarities) arise between sounds of the same type and are based on a tendency opposite to assimilation: from two identical or similar sounds, two different or less similar sounds are obtained. Assimilation and dissimilation are aimed at facilitating pronunciation.

Assimilation does not change the phonetic appearance of the language in such a way and is more widely allowed by the literary language; dissimilation dramatically change the phonetic appearance of the language and are more common in irregular speech (dialects, vernacular, children's speech).

4. System of phonemes and phonetic system. The ratio of sound and meaning has long interested scientists. Most often, they tried to establish a direct connection between sounds and meaning. This is the so-called "symbolism of sounds" (Plato, scholastics, J. Grim, V. Humboldt, A. Schleicher). But the sounds of speech, as such, do not and cannot have meaning.

Linguists of the XIX century. stated that sounds and meanings in a language exist and develop on their own, the connection of sounds and meanings is limited association. So phonetics was given to the natural sciences. In order not to break the unity of the language, understanding came from the theory phonemes or phonology.

Russian science has the priority of the first formulation of the theory of phonemes and the introduction of this term into linguistic use since the 80s. 19th century Kazan Linguistic School, I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay, N.V. Krushevsky. Fundamentals of phonemes were developed.

The concepts of "phoneme" and "speech sound" do not coincide, because a phoneme can consist not only of one sound, but also of two (diphthongs, in English: fly, house).

Phonemes- these are the minimum units of the sound structure of the language, which serve to distinguish between significant units of the language: morphemes, words.

To perform this role - folding and distinguishing significant units of the language - phonemes must be opposed to each other in the language system. Such oppositions of phonemes are called opposition.

First of all, each phoneme is opposed to zero, i.e. the absence of this phoneme: cattle-cat, wolf-ox - differentiate different words, chair-chair- forms of one word (or word form), etc.

Phonemes are the smallest units of a language and cannot be further divided. The phoneme is a complex phenomenon, because consists of a number of features that do not exist independently, outside of phonemes (voicedness, hardness, explosiveness, etc.) Not all features in the composition of phonemes play the same role, some are semantic or word-distinctive; others are indistinguishable.

The same feature of phonemes in different languages can have different functional characteristic: in one language it is distinctive (hardness and softness in Russian), in others it is indistinguishable (hardness and softness in French).

To establish whether sounds in a language belong to different phonemes or are varieties of one phoneme, one must put them in the same pronunciation conditions and establish whether they distinguish meaning without the help of other phonemes - these are different phonemes; if they do not distinguish, then these are varieties of the same phoneme.

There are no "universal" phonemes. Each language has its own number of phonemes, and proportions of consonants and vowels.

For language learners, it is not so difficult to master the unusual articulation of sounds (for Russian - English interdental or French and Polish nasal vowels), as to pronounce unusual options: the speaker involuntarily introduces the usual phonetic norms of his language, which forms accent(Russians stun final voiced consonants at the end of words in English, French, etc.).

The normalization of pronunciation in practical phonetics is engaged in orthoepy - literally means the correct pronunciation (spelling - " correct letter”), denotes a section on pronunciation norms. Only literary pronunciation can be normalized, which is necessary for radio, theater, and schools.

Auxiliary section - reading rules, i.e. pronunciation instructions for reading letters and their combinations, when the letter and language do not correspond to each other.

Essay on the Russian language

on the topic of:

"Phonetic system of the Russian language"

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish between significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

1. Phonetic means of the Russian language

The phonetic means of the Russian language include:

Sounds

Stress (verbal and phrasal)

Intonation.

The shortest, minimal, non-segmented sound unit that stands out during the successive sound division of a word is calledthe sound of speech .

Speech sounds have a different quality and therefore serve in the language as a means for distinguishing words. Often words differ in only one sound, the presence of an extra sound compared to another word, the order of the sounds.

For example: jackdaw - pebble,

fight - howl,

mouth - mole,

nose - sleep.

The traditional classification of speech sounds is their division into consonants and vowels.

Consonants differ from vowels in the presence of noises that are formed in the oral cavity during pronunciation.

The consonants are different:

2) at the place of noise generation,

3) according to the method of noise generation,

4) by the absence or presence of softness.

Participation of noise and voice . According to the participation of noise and voice, consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous. Sonorant consonants formed with the help of voice and slight noise are called: [m], [m "], [n], [n"], [l], [l "], [p], [p"]. Noisy consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Noisy voiced consonants are [b], [b "], [c], [c"], [g], [g "], [d], [d "], [g], ["], [s ], [h "], , formed by noise with the participation of the voice. Noisy deaf consonants include: [p], [p "], [f], [f"], [k], [k "], [t], [t"], [s], [s"] , [w], ["], [x], [x"], [c], [h "], formed only with the help of one noise, without the participation of the voice.

Location of noise . Depending on which active organ of speech (lower lip or tongue) dominates in the formation of sound, consonants are divided into labial and lingual . If we take into account the passive organ in relation to which the lip or tongue articulates, consonants can be labial-labial [b], [p] [m] and labio-dental [c], [f]. Linguistics are divided intoanterior lingual, middle lingual and back lingual . Anterior-lingual can be dental [t], [d], [s], [h], [c], [n], [l] and palatine-tooth [h], [w], [g], [r] ; middle-lingual - middle-palatal; posterior lingual - posterior palate [g], [k], [x].

Noise generation methods . Depending on the difference in the methods of noise formation, consonants are divided into occlusive [b], [p], [d], [t], [g], [k], slotted [c], [f], [s], [h], [w], [g], [x], affricates [c], [h], closure-through: nasal [n], [m], lateral, or oral, [l] and trembling (vibrants) [p].

Hardness and softness of consonants . The absence or presence of softness (palatalization) determines the hardness and softness of consonants. Palatalization (Latin palatum - hard palate) is the result of the midpalatal articulation of the tongue, complementing the main articulation of the consonant sound. Sounds produced with this additional articulation are called soft , and those formed without it - solid .

For example: r about overgrown - grew and and roses - grew [grew - grew].

So the paired consonants [b] - [p], [c] - [f], [d] - [t], [h] - [s], [g] - [w], [g] - [k], which, therefore, form correlative pairs of consonants according todeafness-voicedness.

The classification of Russian consonants is presented in the table:

By way	Local		labial	dental labial	dental	medium palatine	back- palatine
Noisy	explosive	voiced
		deaf
	fricatives	voiced			f h
		deaf			w s
	Affricants				h c
Sonorant		smooth			r l
		explosive

The composition of consonant sounds, taking into account the deafness-voicedness correlation, is shown in the following table

(["], ["] - long hissing, paired in deafness-voicedness; compare [dro" and], ["and]).

The hardness and softness of consonants, like deafness-voicedness, differ in some positions, but do not differ in others, which leads to the presence of a correlative series in the consonant system hard and soft sounds. So, before the vowel [o], [l] - [l "] are distinguished (cf .: lot - ice [lot - l "from], and before the sound [e], not only [l] - [l"], but also other paired hard-soft sounds do not differ (cf .: [l "eu], [v" eu] , [b "eu], etc.).

Long and double consonants. In the phonetic system of the modern Russian literary language, there are two long consonants - soft hissing ["] and ["] ( yeast, soup ). These long hissing sounds are not opposed to the sounds [w], [g], which are unpaired hard ones. As a rule, long consonants in Russian are formed only at the junctions of morphemes and are a combination of sounds. For example, in the word reason [p Λ at dk] a long sound arose at the junction of the prefix times- and root court-, cf .: [n Λ "e lk], [yl], [l" ö "ik] ( fake, sewed, pilot). The sounds arising in these cases cannot be defined as long ones, since they are devoid of a distinctive function, they are not opposed to short sounds. In essence, such "long" sounds are not long, but double.

Cases of long consonants ( quarrel, squabble etc.) are rare in the roots of Russian words. Words with double consonants in the roots are usually foreign (telegram, gamma, antennaand so on.). Such words in live pronunciation lose vowel length, which is often reflected in modern spelling (literature, attack, corridor and so on.).

Sound laws in the field of consonants:

Phonetic law of the end of a word . A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones:threshold - vice, young - hammer, goats - braidand so on. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - driveway[P Λ dj e st] etc.

Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:

1) before a pause: [pr "ish o l p o jst] (the train came ); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [v]: [praf he], [sat ours], [slap jа], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind). Sonorant consonants are not stunned: rubbish, they say, com, he.

Assimilation of consonants by voiced and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.

By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. The voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than the stunning of voiced ones; the transition of voiced to voiceless creates homophones: [d u shk - d u shk] (shackle - darling), [in "and e with" t "and - in" and e with "t" and] (carry - lead), [fp "bp" and e m "e shku - fp "bp" and e m "e shku] ( mixed - mixed).

Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf ones remain unchanged: tinder, rogue , [Λ tj e st] (departure), yours, yours.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [nΛ x o tk] (gait), [collection] (collection ); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where " e lu] (to the point), [zd "e lm] (with the case ); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [g o t-t] (a year), [d o would] (daughter would ); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛ zy] (goat horn), [ras-n "at"] (five times).

The composition of consonants, taking into account the correlative series of hard and soft sounds, is presented in the following table:

All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, sat down) and so on.; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [p" silt "and] ( sweet, drinking).

Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf. end - ring).

Dental [h], [s], [n], [p], [e], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening. Do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]:glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quietetc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l" e s]; cf. [ Λ " O p]) and before the particle ([p o s - l "and]; compare [r Λ sl" and ]) ( here is the forest, otter, did it grow, did it grow).

Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m"ê s "t"], [v" and e z "d" e], [f-k a "b], [kaz" n "] ( revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Softening [h], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft labials: [raz "d" and e l "it"], [rs "t" and e nut "], [b" noz "-n" and e in about), [b "and e s" -s "il] ( divide, stretch, without him, without strength). Before soft lips, softening [s], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of the prefixes on-z , as well as in the attachment With- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s"m"ex], [s"v"ê p "], [d" in " ê p "], [t" in " ê p "], [s" p " ê t "], [s" -n "im], [is" -pê h "], [r Λ h"d" ê T"] ( laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).

Labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt"ê n "h" bk], [n "eft"], [vz "at"] (chick, oil, take).

These cases of assimilative softness of consonants show that the action of assimilation in the modern Russian literary language is not always distinguished by a strict sequence.

Complete assimilation of [h], [s] occurs: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [ at "], [p Λ at "] (compress, unclench); [yt"], [r Λ yt "] (sew, embroider); ["from], [r Λ "o t] (account, calculation); [p Λ zn o "ik], [izv o "ik] ( peddler, carrier);

2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [arm], [ a rm] (with heat, with a ball); [b "and e ar], [bi e ar] ( no heat, no ball).

The combination of zh inside the root, as well as a combination LJ (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [w "]: [on "b] ( Later ), (I drive); [in o "and], [dr o" and] (reins, yeast ). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [g] can be pronounced.

A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long ["], []: [Λ "ot t] (report), (fkr a b] (in short).

Simplifying consonant combinations . Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations:stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [wu sny], [pozn], [w "and e sl" and you], [g "igansk" and], [h" u stv], [with "erdts], [son] ( oral, late, happy, giant, feeling, heart, sun).

Reduction of groups of identical consonants . When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra o r "it"] ( times + quarrel), [ylk] (with reference), [to Λ l about s] (column + n + th ); [Λ d "e ki] (Odessa + sk + y).

Vowel sounds differ from consonants in the presence of a voice - a musical tone and the absence of noise.

The existing classification of vowels takes into account the following conditions for the formation of vowels:

1) the degree of elevation of the tongue

2) the place of the rise of the tongue

3) participation or non-participation of the lips.

The most significant of these conditions is the position of the tongue, which changes the shape and volume of the oral cavity, on the state of which the quality of the vowel depends.

According to the degree of vertical rise of the tongue, vowels of three degrees of rise are distinguished: vowels top lifting [and], [s], [y]; vowels average lifting e [e], [o]; vowel lower lift [a].

The movement of the tongue horizontally leads to the formation of vowels of three rows: vowels front row [and], e [e]; vowels average series [s], [a] and vowels back row [y], [o].

The participation or non-participation of lips in the formation of vowels is the basis for dividing vowels intolabialized(rounded) [o], [y] andnon-labialized(unrounded) [a], e [e], [i], [s].

Table of vowel sounds of the modern Russian literary language

Climb	Row
	Front	Average	Rear
	Non-labialized		Labialized
Upper
Average	uh [ e]
Lower

Sound law in the field of vowels.

Vowel reduction . The change (weakening) of vowel sounds in an unstressed position is called reduction , and unstressed vowels -reducedvowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first prestressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in weak position of the second degree undergo more reduction than vowels in weak position of the first degree.

Vowels in weak position of the first degree: [inΛ l s] (shafts); [shaft s] (oxen); [b "and e yes] ( trouble), etc.

Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parlv about s] ( steam locomotive); [karg Λ nd a] (Karaganda); [kulk Λ la] (bells); [p "l" and e na] ( shroud); [g o ls] (voice), [in o zglas] (exclamation), etc.

1.2 In the speech stream it differsstress phrasal, tact and verbal.

Verbal accent is called the selection during the pronunciation of one of the syllables of a disyllabic or polysyllabic word. Word stress is one of the main external signs of an independent word.word stressdistinguishes between words and word forms that are identical in sound composition (cf .: clubs - clubs, holes - holes - holes, hands - hands and ). Service words and particles usually do not have stress and are adjacent to independent words, making up one with them.phonetic word: [under-mountain about th], [on-side], [here-te-r and z].

Diversity stress is used in Russian to distinguish between homographs and their grammatical forms ( o rgan - org a n ) and individual forms of various words ( m o yu - mo yu ), and in some cases serves as a means of lexical differentiation of the word ( x a os - ha o s ) or gives the word a stylistic coloring ( young e c - m o lodets). Mobility and immobility stress serves as an additional means in the formation of forms of the same word: the stress or remains in the same place of the word ( about d, -a, -y, -om, -e, -s, -ovetc.), or moves from one part of the word to another ( g o genus, -a, -y, -om, -e; - a , - o v etc.). The mobility of stress ensures the distinction of grammatical forms ( to have a pita - kup and those, n about gi - legs, etc.).

In some cases, the difference in the place of verbal stress loses all meaning.

For example: tvo horn and tvor o g, and nache and otherwise, about boo and about u x, etc.

Weakly impacted can be disyllabic and trisyllabic prepositions and conjunctions, simple numerals in combination with nouns, ligaments be and become , some of the introductory words.

Some categories of words have, in addition to the main one, an additional, secondary stress, which is usually in the first place, and the main one is in the second, for example: others ê vner u ssky . These words include:

1) polysyllabic, as well as complex in composition ( aircraft construction ),

2) compound abbreviations ( G ô stelets e ntr),

3) words with prefixesafter-, over-, archi-, trans-, anti- and others (tr â nsatlant and Czech, post-Oct I am Brsky),

Intonation is related to phonology by the fact that it belongs to the sound side of the language and that it is functional, but it differs from phonology in that intonation units have semantic significance in themselves: for example, rising intonation is mainly correlated with questioning or incompleteness of a statement. The relationship between intonation and sentence syntax is not always unambiguous. In some cases, the grammatical patterns on which the statement is built may have a typical intonational design. So, sentences with a particlewhether, represent a grammatical model for constructing an interrogative statement.

2. Phonetic units of the Russian language

Phrase - this is the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other phrases by a pause.

speech beat (or syntagma ) most often consists of several words united by one stress.

The speech beat is divided intof onetic words , i.e. independent words together with unstressed functional words and particles adjoining them.

Words are divided into proper phonetic units -syllables , and the latter onsounds .

2.1 syllables

From the point of view of education, from the physiological, syllable is a sound or several sounds uttered by one expiratory push.

From the point of view of sonority, from the acoustic side, a syllable is a sound segment of speech in which one sound is distinguished by the greatest sonority in comparison with neighboring ones - the previous and subsequent ones. Vowels, as the most sonorous, are usually syllabic, and consonants are non-syllabic, but sonorous ( r, l, m, n ), as the most sonorous of the consonants, can form a syllable. Syllables are divided into open and closed depending on the position of the syllabic sound in them.

open A syllable ending in a syllabic sound is called: wa-ta. Closed A syllable ending in a non-syllabic sound is called: there, bark.

naked A syllable that begins with a vowel is called: a-orta. Covered A syllable that begins with a consonant is called: ba-tone.

The basic law of the syllable division in the Russian language.

The structure of a syllable in Russian obeys the law of ascending sonority. This means that the sounds in the syllable are arranged from the least sonorous to the most sonorous.

The law of ascending sonority can be illustrated in the words below, if the sonority is conventionally denoted by numbers: 3 - vowels, 2 - sonorous consonants, 7 - noisy consonants. Vo-yes: 1-3/1-3; boat: 2-3 / 1-1-3; oil : 2-3/1-2-3; wave: 1-3-2/2-3. In the examples given, the basic law of the syllable section is realized at the beginning of a non-initial syllable.

The initial and final syllables in Russian are built according to the same principle of increasing sonority. For example: le-to: 2-3/1-3; glass-clo: 1-3/1-2-3.

The syllable division in the combination of significant words is usually preserved in the form that is characteristic of each word included in the phrase:us Turkey - us-Tur-qi-i; nasturtiums(flowers) - on-stur-qi-i.

A particular pattern of the syllable division at the junction of morphemes is the impossibility of pronouncing, firstly, more than two identical consonants between vowels and, secondly, identical consonants before the third (other) consonant within one syllable. This is more often observed at the junction of a root and a suffix and less often at the junction of a prefix and a root or a preposition and a word. For example: Odessa [o/de/sit]; art [and/beauty/stvo]; part [ra / become / sya]; off the wall [ste / ny], therefore more often - [co / ste / ny].

2.2 Sounds

To designate a sound, when it is considered from the phonological side, the term is usedphoneme .

As a rule, the sound shells of words and their forms are different, if we exclude homonyms. Words that have the same sound composition may differ in the place of stress ( Muk u - m u ku, m u ki - muk and ) or the order of identical sounds ( cat - current ). Words may also contain such smallest, further indivisible units of speech sounding, which independently delimit the sound shells of words and their forms, for example: tank, side, beech ; in these words, the sounds [a], [o], [y] distinguish the sound shells of these words and act as phonemes. Words bach o k and boch o k differ in writing, but are pronounced the same [bΛ h o to]: the sound shells of these words do not differ, because the sounds [a] and [o] in the given words end up in the first pre-stressed syllable and are deprived of the distinctive role that they play in the words tank - side . Consequently, the phoneme serves to distinguish the sound shell of words and their forms. Phonemes do not differentiate the meaning of words and forms, but only their sound shells, indicate differences in meaning, but do not reveal their nature.

Different quality of sounds [a] and [o] in words tank - side and tank about to - barrel about to explains the different place that these sounds occupy in words in relation to word stress. In addition, when pronouncing words, one sound can influence the quality of another, and as a result, the qualitative nature of the sound is determined by the position of the sound - the position after or in front of another sound, between other sounds. In particular, for the quality of vowels, the position in relation to the stressed syllable is important, and for consonants, the position at the end of the word. Yes, in words horn - horn a [rock] - [p Λ ha] the consonant sound [g] (at the end of the word) is stunned and pronounced like [k], and the vowel sound [o] (in the first pre-stressed syllable) sounds like a [Λ]. Consequently, the quality of the sounds [o] and [g] in these words turns out to be more or less dependent on the position of these sounds in the word.

The concept of a phoneme implies a distinction between independent and dependent features of speech sounds. Independent and dependent signs of sounds correlate differently for different sounds and in different phonetic conditions. So, for example, the sound [z] in words created and section It is characterized by two independent features: the method of formation (slit sound) and the place of formation (dental sound). In addition to independent signs, the sound [z] in the word created [with o zdl] has one dependent feature - voiced (before voiced [d]), and in the word section [p Λ h "d" e l] - two dependent features determined by the position of the sound: sonority (before voiced [d]) and softness (before soft dental [d "]). It follows that in some phonetic conditions, independent signs predominate in sounds, while in others - dependent .

Accounting for independent and dependent features clarifies the concept of a phoneme. Independent qualities form independent phonemes that are used in the same (identical) position and distinguish the sound shells of words. Dependent qualities of sound exclude the possibility of using the sound in an identical position and deprive the sound of a distinctive role and therefore do not form independent phonemes, but only varieties of the same phoneme. Hence, phoneme called the shortest sound unit, independent in its quality and therefore serving to distinguish the sound shells of words and their forms.

The quality of vowels [a], [o], [y] in words tank, side, beech is not phonetically determined, does not depend on the position, and the use of these sounds is identical (between the same consonants, under stress). Therefore, the distinguished sounds have a distinctive function and, therefore, are phonemes.

In the words mother, mint, mint [mat t", m "a t, m" ä t "] the stressed sound [a] differs in quality, since it is used not in the same, but in different positions (before soft, after soft, between soft consonants). Therefore, the sound [a] in words mother, mint, mint does not have a directly distinctive function and does not form independent phonemes, but only varieties of the same phoneme<а> .

The degree of different function of phonemes is expressed in terms ofstrong phoneme And weak phoneme .

Strong phonemes appear in the phonetic position in which the largest number of sound units are distinguished, for example, vowels in a stressed position. This phonetic position is calledstrong position; stressed vowels are strong phonemes, and their phonetic position is a strong position.

Weak phonemes appear in those positions in which a smaller number of sound units are distinguished. This phonetic position is called a weak position. So, in an unstressed position, vowels appear in a smaller number of sound units (cf. the coincidence of the sounds [o] and [a] in the first pre-stressed syllable: shaft - [in Λ l s], wave - [in Λ l s ]). Unstressed vowels are weak phonemes, and their phonetic position is weak position.

Strong and weak phonemes have different distinctiveness: the distinctive function of phonemes in strong positions has the greatest degree, in weak positions - less.

Basic type of strong vowel phonemes . The main type of a strong vowel phoneme is the variety of this phoneme that is least dependent on phonetic conditions, i.e. stressed at the beginning of a word before a solid consonant ( and rka, oh spa, e hat, and back, u rna).

Varieties of strong vowel phonemes . Strong vowel phonemes, differing under stress, change their quality depending on the position before the consonant and after the consonant of one quality or another, at the absolute beginning and at the absolute end of the word and appear in their different varieties - more anterior or posterior, which are presented in the following table variations of vowel phonemes:

[u]
Name

[s]
we, washed

[s]
dust

[And]
sleep, sleep

[u]
miles

[y]
wow

[y]
hive

[y]
that, here

[y]
path

[y]
drink, drink

[y]
trousers

The given scheme of variations of strong vowel phonemes should be supplemented with an indication of the pronunciation of stressed strong phonemes after backlingual and hard sibilants.

After back-lingual ( g, k, x ), not before soft consonants, the same vowels are pronounced as in position I; moreover, before [e] and [and] back-lingual ones appear in their soft varieties: [how], [com], [godfather], [to "eat], [k" it].

After back-lingual, before soft consonants, the same vowels are pronounced as in position II, and back-lingual before [e] and [and] appear in their soft variations: [to a m "bn"], [k o s "t"], [k s "t" ik], [k" ê n "and], [k" û with "t"].

After hard hissing ( w, w ), before hard and soft consonants, all vowel phonemes except<е>, change in the same way as in positions III and IV, and the phoneme<е>performs in variation<э>.

I - at the beginning of a word, II - after a double solid consonant. III - after a soft consonant, IV - after a hard hissing (variants of vowel phonemes).

The system of weak vowel phonemes of the first prestressed syllable (varieties of weak phonemes) in comparison with the system of strong vowel phonemes is shown in the following table:

The phoneme is an exception.<и>, which at the absolute beginning of the word is realized by the sound [and]: [YvesAn], and in the first pre-stressed syllable after solid consonants - with the sound [s]: [s-svAnm].

Variants of vowel phonemes of the second prestressed syllable . In all pre-stressed syllables, except for the first, weak vowel phonemes are in a weak position of the second degree. This position has two varieties: I - after a double hard consonant and II - after a soft consonant. After a solid consonant, vowel phonemes are realized by the sounds [b], [s], [y]; after soft - sounds [b], [and], [y]. For example: [b] - [barΛ bAn], [kalkΛ lA], [s] - [rescuedAt "], [y] - [murΛ V"ê ], [b] - [ptΛ hOto], [and] - [to "islΛ TA], [y] - [l "ubΛ Pstons].

Variants of vowel phonemes of stressed syllables . Weak vowel phonemes of stressed syllables differ in the degree of reduction: the weakest reduction is observed in the final open syllable. There are two positions of weak phonemes in stressed syllables: after hard consonants and after soft consonants.

The system of variants of vowel phonemes of stressed syllables is presented in the table. [be "bt" b] -(you will)

[and] - [b]
[With"û n "im] -(blue)
[With"û n "bm] -(blue)

[b]
[voice] -(voice)
[atlas] -(atlas)

[b] - [b]
[cl"ä h "um" and] -(nags)
[cl"ä h "um" and] -(nags)

[b] - [b]
[cl"ä h "bm] -(nags)
[cl"ä h "um] -(nags)

[y]
[body] -(body)

[y]
[frame] -(frame)

[y]
[PΛ floor "ear] -(on a field)

[y]
[pop "y] -(on the field)

As the table shows, after solid consonants, vowels [s], [b], [y] are distinguished; moreover, the sounds [s] and [b] are weakly opposed. After soft consonants, vowels [i], [b], [b], [y] are distinguished; moreover, the sounds [i] - [b], [b] - [b] are distinguished by a weak distinction.

The change of phonemes, strong and weak, occupying the same position in the morpheme, formsphonemic series . So, vowel phonemes that are identical in place in the morphemebraid-, form a phonemic row<о> - < Λ> - < b>: [toOsy] - [toΛ WithA] - [kasΛ R"And], and the consonant phoneme<в>morphemesbecoming-starts a phonemic sequence<в> - <в"> - <ф> - <ф">: [mouthAyou] - [mouthAin "it"] - [mouthAf] - [mouthAf"].

The phonemic series is an essential element of the structure of the language, since the identity of the morpheme is based on it. The composition of phonemes of the same morpheme always corresponds to a certain phonemic series. Instrumental case inflections in wordswindow-ohmAndgarden-om [Λ bookOm] - [sAdm],water-ohAndmod-oh[VΛ dO] - [mOe) are pronounced differently. However, these inflections ([-om] - [-bm], [-o] - [b]) are the same morpheme, since phonemes change in their composition<о>And<ъ>belonging to the same phonemic series.

Conclusion

Thus, the phonetic system of the Russian language consists of significant units of speech:

words

word forms

phrases and sentences

for transmission and distinction, which are the phonetic means of the language:

sounds

stress

intonation.

Phonetics is the science of the sound side of human speech. This is one of the main sections of linguistics (linguistics). The word "phonetics" comes from the Greek. phonetikos - "sound, voice" (phone - sound). The special position of phonetics as a science is determined by the fact that it, the only one of all linguistic sciences, studies such units of language, the nature of which is material. The material carrier of sounding speech is air vibrations specially formed by the speaker. The listener receives information about the meaning of the message transmitted by the speaker primarily on the basis of his auditory perception.

INTRODUCTION 3
Chapter 1. Phonetics as a science 5
Chapter 2. Pronunciation of sounds and their combinations 8
Chapter 3
Chapter 4 Pronunciation Styles 15
CONCLUSION 19
REFERENCES 20

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INTRODUCTION 3

Chapter 1. Phonetics as a science 5

Chapter 2. Pronunciation of sounds and their combinations 8

Chapter 3

Chapter 4 Pronunciation Styles 15

CONCLUSION 19

REFERENCES 20

INTRODUCTION

The general phonetics and the phonetics of a specific language differ. General phonetics studies the patterns that operate in different languages of the world, and is the basis for the phonetic analysis of the system of any particular language. The Russian language, like any other language of the peoples of the world, has its own phonetic features that form the phonetic system of the Russian language, which is what Russian phonetics studies.

The Russian experimental phonetic school is known all over the world for its achievements. The founder of the school was the outstanding linguist I.A. Baudouin de Courtenay. The first experimental phonetic study of the system of Russian vocalism belongs to the head and founder of the Leningrad phonetic school, L. V. Shcherba. Moscow phonetics is associated primarily with the names of A.A. Reformatsky, R.I. Avanesova, P.S. Kuznetsova, V.N. Sidorov. Experimental phonetics received a powerful impetus for its development with the development of modern computer technology, which allowed the phonetic researcher to have at his disposal an entire experimental phonetic laboratory on one personal computer.

Russian linguists have made a great contribution to the study of the history of the development of the phonetic system of the Proto-Slavic and Old Russian languages (A.Kh. Vostokov, F.I. Buslaev), Russian dialectology and dialectal phonetics (N.N. Durnovo, A.A. Shakhmatov, R. I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov). The result of theoretical and practical research of linguists, including phoneticians, XIX - XX centuries. was the spelling reform of 1917-1918. Modern spelling is generally based on the rules enshrined in the documents of the Spelling Reform of 1917-1918. (prepared by F.F. Fortunatov, A.A. Shakhmatov, D.N. Ushakov). The theoretical foundations of spelling as a section of linguistics were laid by G.O. distiller. After the revolution of 1917, field studies of non-written languages were actively conducted in the USSR, the theoretical and practical foundations of which were developed by E.D. Polivanov is the author of the first textbooks for non-literate peoples, the creator of new alphabets.

Therefore, in the phonetic system of the language, means are needed that serve to convey and distinguish between significant units of speech - words, their forms, phrases and sentences.

Chapter 1. Phonetics as a science

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sounds of speech and the sound structure of a language (syllables, sound combinations, patterns of connecting sounds into a speech chain).

The subject of phonetics is the close connection between oral, internal and written speech. Phonetics explores not only the language function, but also the material side of its object: the work of the pronunciation apparatus, as well as the acoustic characteristics of sound phenomena and their perception by native speakers. Phonetics considers sound phenomena as elements of a language system that serve to translate words and sentences into a material sound form, without which communication is impossible.

Three aspects of phonetics:

1) anatomical and physiological (articulatory). Explores the sound of speech from the point of view of its creation: What organs of speech are involved in its pronunciation; Active or passive vocal cords. Are the lips pulled forward, etc.

2) acoustic (physical). Considers sound as an air vibration and captures its physical characteristics: frequency (height), strength (amplitude), duration.

3) functional aspect (phonological). He studies the functions of sounds in the language, operates with phonemes.

Basic phonetic units and means.

All units of phonetics are divided into segmental and supersegmental.

Segmental units - units that can be distinguished in the flow of speech: sounds, syllables, phonetic words (rhythmic structures, beat), phonetic phrases (syntagms).

A phonetic phrase is a segment of speech, which is an intonation-semantic unity, highlighted on both sides by pauses.

Syntagma (speech beat) - a segment of a phonetic phrase, characterized by a special intonation and clock stress. Pauses between bars are optional (or short), the bar stress is not very intense.

A phonetic word (rhythmic structure) is a part of a phrase united by one verbal stress.

A syllable is the smallest unit of a speech chain.

Sound is the smallest phonetic unit.

Supersegmental units (intonation means) are units that are superimposed on segmental ones: melodic units (tone), dynamic (stress) and temporal (tempo or duration).

Stress is the allocation in speech of a certain unit in a series of homogeneous units using the intensity (energy) of sound.

Tone - a rhythmic-melodic pattern of speech, determined by a change in the frequency of the sound signal.

The pace is the speed of speech, which is determined by the number of segment units spoken per unit of time.

Duration - the duration of the speech segment.

Sections of phonetics.

Phonetics is divided into general, comparative, historical and descriptive.

General phonetics considers patterns that are characteristic of the sound structure of all world languages. General phonetics explores the structure of the human speech apparatus and its use in different languages in the formation of speech sounds, considers the patterns of changes in sounds in the speech stream, establishes the classification of sounds, the ratio of sounds and abstract phonetic units - phonemes, establishes the general principles for dividing the sound stream into sounds, syllables and larger units.

Comparative phonetics compares the sound structure of a language with other languages. Comparison of foreign and native languages is primarily necessary in order to see and assimilate the features of a foreign language. But such a comparison sheds light on the laws of the native language. Sometimes a comparison of related languages helps to penetrate into the depths of their history.

Historical phonetics traces the development of a language over a rather long period of time (sometimes since the appearance of one particular language - its separation from the parent language).

Descriptive phonetics considers the sound structure of a particular language at a certain stage (most often the phonetic structure of a modern language).

Chapter 2. Pronunciation of sounds and their combinations

The modern Russian literary language differs from jargons, non-literary vernacular, local dialects in that it has a system of pronunciation norms. How certain sounds should be pronounced in certain phonetic positions, in certain combinations with other sounds, as well as in certain grammatical forms and groups of words - orthoepy deals with all these issues (from the Greek words orthos - correct and epos - speech). Therefore, orthoepy can be defined as a set of rules that establish literary pronunciation.

The importance of orthoepic rules for communication is enormous. They contribute to faster and easier mutual understanding of speakers. Errors in pronunciation distract from the content of speech and thus interfere with linguistic communication. Despite the great successes achieved in the field of public education in general and in improving the speech culture of our population, in particular, pronunciation is still the weakest link in it. At present, due to the expansion of the influence of mass media (radio, television), reflecting and transmitting the “live voices” of a larger number of native speakers on the air than in the recent past, the issue of correct pronunciation is particularly acute.

Even at the beginning of this century, the Moscow pronunciation in the form in which it developed by the end of the 19th century served as a model. Many of its features turned out to be stable and have survived to this day in the literary language. In the pronunciation of vowels, for example, the most feature is a change depending on their position (position) in stressed or unstressed syllables. So, for the Russian literary language, akanye is characteristic, i.e. pronunciation [o] in an unstressed syllable before the stressed one, after solid consonants as a sound close to [a], denoted by the sign α - alpha: k [a] r va - cow, s [a] b ka - dog, st [ a) I stand. In other unstressed syllables, regardless of whether they are before or after the stressed syllable, the pronunciation of not only [o] but also [α] noticeably changes. Both sounds are pronounced as an obscure, more or less abbreviated (scientifically reduced) s-shaped sound, middle between [a] and [s], conventionally denoted by the sign er / b / For example, we write a frying pan, a wire, and pronunciation of words with obscure, mostly reduced (reduced) vowels, there is one danger that must be constantly remembered. If we abbreviate [α] and [o] too much, some words may sound like words with other meanings. Then our interlocutors may not understand everything from what we have said. So, the word head [glav] can sound like a head [chlαv], a steamboat [parah t], - like a passage [prαx t], a steam locomotive [prαvos] - like a carriage [prαvs], side [strαn] - like a country [country] .

When pronouncing consonants, it is still characteristic in the literary language, for example, the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before the deaf ones and, conversely, the voicing of the deaf ones before voiced ones. Here are examples of possible stunning: oak - du [p], love - any [f,], circle - circle [k], area - area [t "], path - road [sh] ka, diamond - alma [s].

However, some speakers, when stunning the voiced [g] at the end of the word, do not use the paired deaf [k], which would correspond to the orthoepic norm, but the consonant [x]. They say, for example, vra[x] is an enemy, vdr[x] is suddenly, sne[x] is snow, fla[x] is a flag, which corresponds to colloquial or dialectal pronunciation.

Let us give examples and voicings of the deaf before voiced consonants: the station - in [gz] al, football - foo [db] ol, hand over - [h]at, which have become normative.

However, the Moscow pronunciation from the middle of the XIX century. there was a strong competitor - the St. Petersburg pronunciation. It differed from Moscow in greater proximity to written speech, i.e. pronunciation close in some cases to spelling. For example, Muscovites said m[i] hundred, sweet[y], bulo[sh]naya. Petersburgers pronounced, as they wrote - m[e] a hundred, sweet[s], bulo[h]naya.

In the 20s. of the present century and in subsequent decades, great changes took place in the Russian literary language. They were caused by mass movements of the population in the country, a change in the social status of people who did not know pronunciation norms, a mixture, especially in cities, of people from different areas, the eradication of illiteracy, an increase in the general cultural level of the people under the influence of the media, cinema, and then television . And the population of Moscow and Leningrad-Petersburg itself has changed a lot, so at present it is difficult to talk about any serious differences in Moscow and St. Petersburg pronunciation.

And yet, the old Moscow pronunciation is still heard in the speech of many radio and television announcers, is still cultivated on the stage of many theaters, and by no means Moscow ones. Some still consider it exemplary.

The most noticeable features of Old Moscow pronunciation usually include the pronunciation of: 1) endings of the 3rd l.pl. verbs of conjugation II through =ut,=ut by analogy with verbs of conjugation I:

in [z´ut], n [s´ut], words "[joke]; compare modern in" [z´ut], but "[s´ut], words" [shut]; 2) endings I.p.s.ch. adjectives with a base on back-lingual consonants r, k, x with a reduced sound [b] in place of [i]: stro "[gjj], then" n [kjj], ti "[x´ij]; compare modern stro" [g ´иj], then "n[k´ij], ti" [х´иj]; 3) suffixes in the infinitive after the posterior lingual r, k, x, also with reduced [b] in place [i]: cover "[kvb] t, jump" [gvb] t, sma" [khb] t; cf. modern pokri "[k´iva] t, crossing" [g'iva] t, sma "m; 4) the vowel [a] as the middle between [s] and [e], i.e. [s e], after hissing zh and w in the 1st pre-stressed syllable: [zhy e] ra", [shy e] gi", [shy e] lu "n; compare modern [zh] ra", [sha ]gi", [sha] lu "n, 5) vowels [a, e] after soft consonants in the 1st pre-stressed syllable as a sound close to [and]: [ch'i] sy", c[v'i e] that "th; cf. modern [h’i e] sy, with [v’i e] ta "th 6) softened consonants before subsequent soft consonants: scha" [s’t´] ye, cf. modern version scha[st´]e, 7) suffix = sya (=s) in reflexive verbs as solid [sa, s]; cf. common [s´a, s´]; old "ral [s" b], old 'ya [s'] and stage old' l [s], old [s], 8) a combination of ch action. ku "[shn] o, horse" [shn] o, 9) combinations of zzh, zhzh as a long soft, vi["]a´t´, dr["]and cf. modern viat, others with a solid long .

Phonetic system of the language. Cheat sheet: Phonetic system of the Russian language Phonetic system of the Russian language abstract

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