Reader on the history of the ancient world Struve 1950. Reader on the history of the ancient world: [Textbook. allowance for universities on special. "Story". X. Development of Democracy

READING ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD (Part 2. History of antiquity)

for 1st year students of the Faculty of History

correspondence department

Voronezh 2011

Anthology on the history of the ancient world. (Part 2. History of Antiquity) - Voronezh: Voronezh Publishing House state university, 2007. - p.

Compilers - Ph.D. ist. Sci., Associate Professor of VSPU O.V. Karmazina

cand. ist. Sciences, Associate Professor VSPU L.A. Sakhnenko

Reviewer

Xenophon

State of the Lacedaemonians, 5-7; 8-10

... Having caught the Spartans in an order in which they, like all other Greeks, dined each in their own house, Lycurgus saw in this circumstance the reason for very many frivolous acts. Lycurgus made public their comradely dinners in the expectation that this would most likely eliminate the possibility of disobeying orders. He allowed the citizens to consume food in such quantity that they would not be overly satiated, but also not suffer a shortage; however, often served, in the form of an addition, game, and rich people sometimes bring wheat bread; thus, while the Spartans live together in tents, their table never suffers from a lack of food, nor from excessive cost. It is the same with drinking: having stopped excessive drinking, relaxing the body, relaxing the mind, Lycurgus allowed everyone to drink only to satisfy thirst, believing that drinking under such conditions would be both harmless and most pleasant. At common dinners, how could anyone cause serious damage to himself and his household by delicacy of food or drunkenness? In all other states, peers are, for the most part, together and are least embarrassed by each other; Lycurgus, in Sparta, connected the ages so that young people were brought up mainly under the guidance of the experience of the elders. It is customary to talk about the deeds committed by someone in the state in phiditias; therefore, there is almost no place for arrogance, drunken antics, indecent deeds, foul language. And here is another good side of this arrangement of dining out: when returning home, participants in phidias must walk and be careful not to stumble when drunk, they must know that they cannot stay where they dined, that they must walk in the dark , as during the day, since even with a torch, one who is still serving garrison service is not allowed to walk. Further, noticing that the same food that informs good color face and health to the worker, gives ugly fullness and illness to the idle, Lycurgus did not neglect this either ... That is why it is difficult to find people who are healthier, more physically resilient than the Spartans, since they equally exercise their legs, arms, and neck .

In contrast to most Greeks, Lycurgus considered the following to be necessary. In other states, each disposes of his own children, slaves and property; and Lycurgus, wishing to arrange so that citizens do not harm each other, but benefit each other, provided everyone equally

to dispose of both his own children and those of others: after all, if everyone knows that the fathers of those children whom he disposes of are before him, then inevitably he will dispose of them as he would like to be treated of his own children. If a boy who has been beaten by an outsider complains to his father, it is considered shameful if the father does not beat his son again. So the Spartans are sure that none of them orders the boys anything shameful. Lycurgus also allowed, if necessary, to use other people's slaves, and also established common use hunting dogs; therefore, those who do not have their own dogs invite others to hunt; and whoever does not have time to go hunting himself, he willingly gives dogs to others. Horses are also used in the same way: whoever gets sick or who needs a cart, or who wants to go somewhere as soon as possible, he takes the first horse that comes across and, when necessary, puts it back in good condition. And here is another custom, not adopted by the rest of the Greeks, but introduced by Lycurgus. In case people were late on the hunt and, without taking supplies, would need them, Lycurgus established that the one who had the supplies left them, and the one in need could open the locks, take as much as needed, and lock the rest again. Thus, due to the fact that the Spartans share so with each other, they even have poor people, if they need anything, they have a share in all the wealth of the country.

Also, in contrast to the rest of the Greeks, Lycurgus established the following orders in Sparta. In the rest of the states, each, as far as possible, makes a fortune for himself: one is engaged in agriculture, the other is a shipowner, the third is a merchant, and some are fed by crafts; in Sparta, Lycurgus, forbade the free to engage in anything connected with profit, but established that only occupations that provide the state with freedom should be recognized as suitable for them. And indeed, what is the point of striving for wealth where, by his ordinances on equal contributions to meals, on the same way of life for all, the legislator has stopped any desire to acquire money for the sake of pleasant gain? There is no need to save up wealth for clothing, since in Sparta it is not the luxury of dress that serves as an adornment, but the health of the body. And for spending on comrades, it’s also not worth saving up money, since Lycurgus inspired that it’s more glory to help comrades with personal labor than money - he considered the first a matter of the soul, the second only a matter of wealth. Lycurgus also forbade dishonest enrichment by such orders. First of all, he established such a coin that; if she got into the house for only ten minutes, it would not be hidden either from masters or from domestic slaves, because it would require a lot of space and a whole cart for transportation. Gold and silver are monitored, and if anyone has any of it, the owner is fined. So why was it necessary to strive for enrichment where possession brings more grief than waste-pleasure?

In Sparta, the laws are especially strictly obeyed ... However, I do not think that Lycurgus would begin to introduce this beautiful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential people in the state ... Once, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, then these same people naturally gave strength to the ephorian power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obedience. The ephors have the right to subject anyone to punishment, they have the power to exact immediately, they have the power to remove from office before the expiration of the term and to imprison officials, to bring proceedings against them, threatening death ...

In Sparta, the laws are especially strictly obeyed ... However, I do not think that Lycurgus would begin to introduce this beautiful order without first obtaining the consent of the most influential people in the state ... Once, according to influential people, obedience is the greatest blessing in the city, and in the army, and in the house, then these same people naturally gave strength to the ephorian power: the stronger the power, the more, in their opinion, it should induce citizens to obedience. The ephors have the right to punish anyone, they have the power to exact immediately, they have the power to remove from office before the expiration of the term and imprison officials, initiate a process against them, threatening death.

Reader on the History of the Ancient World, ed. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 49.

PAUSANIA, DESCRIPTION OF HELLAS, 111.20 (6)

... Near the sea was the town of Gelos ... Subsequently, the Dorians took it by siege. The inhabitants of this city became the first public slaves of the Lacedaemonians and the first were called helots, i.e. "captured", which they really were. The name of the helots then spread to the slaves subsequently acquired, although, for example, the Messenians were Dorians ...

LIBANIUS, SPEECH, 25, 63

Against the Helots, the Lacedaemonians gave themselves complete freedom to kill them, and of them Critias says that in Lacedaemon there is the most complete slavery of some and the most complete freedom of others. “After all, because of what else,” says Critias himself, “if not because of distrust of these same helots, the Spartiate takes away the handle of the shield from them at home? After all, he does not do this in war, because there it is often necessary to be extremely efficient. He always walks with a spear in his hands, so that he will be stronger than the helot if he rebels, armed with only a shield. They also invented for themselves constipation, with the help of which they believe to overcome the intrigues of the helots.

It would be the same (criticizes Libanius Kritia) as living together with someone, feeling fear of him and not daring to rest from the expectation of dangers. And how can those who, both during breakfast, and in a dream, and when administering any other need, are armed with fear in relation to slaves, how can such people ... enjoy real freedom.? .. Just like kings have they were by no means free, in view of the fact that the ephors had the power to bind and execute the king, so all the Spargiates were deprived of their freedom, living in conditions of hatred before the side of the slaves.

Reader on the History of the Ancient World, ed. V. V. Struve, vol. II. M., Uchpedgiz, 1951, No. 54.

PERIKLES

Translation by S.I. Sobolevsky, processing of the translation for this reprint by S.S. Averintsev, notes by M.L. Gasparov.

2. Pericles was ... both on the paternal and maternal side of the house and clan, which occupied the first place. Xanthippus, the conqueror of the barbarian generals at Mycale, married Agariste of the clan of Cleisthenes, who expelled the Peisistratids, courageously overthrew tyranny, gave laws to the Athenians and established a political system, mixing in it different elements quite expediently for the harmony and well-being of citizens. Agarista dreamed that she gave birth to a lion, and a few days later she gave birth to Pericles. He had no bodily defects; only the head was oblong and disproportionately large. That is why he is depicted on almost all the statues with a helmet on his head - obviously because the sculptors did not want to represent him in a shameful form ...

The closest person to Pericles, who breathed into him a majestic way of thinking, elevating him above the level of an ordinary leader of the people, and generally giving his character a high dignity, was Anaxagoras of Klazomen, whom his contemporaries called "Mind" - whether because they were surprised at his great, extraordinary mind that manifested itself in the study of nature, or because he was the first to put forward as the principle of the structure of the universe not chance or necessity, but mind, pure, unmixed, which in all other mixed objects separates homogeneous particles.

5. Feeding extraordinary respect for this man, imbued with his teachings on celestial and atmospheric phenomena, Pericles, as they say, not only acquired a lofty way of thinking and sublimity of speech, free from flat, nasty buffoonery, but also a serious expression on his face, inaccessible to laughter , calm gait, modesty in the manner of wearing clothes, not disturbed by any affect during speech, the even voice and similar properties of Pericles made a surprisingly strong impression on everyone ... The poet Ion claims that Pericles' treatment of people was rather arrogant and that his boasting was mixed with a lot of arrogance and contempt for others ...

7. In his youth, Pericles was very afraid of the people: by himself he seemed like the tyrant Pisistratus; his pleasant voice, lightness and speed of language in conversation, by this similarity, inspired fear in very old people. And since he owned wealth, came from a noble family, had influential friends, he was afraid of ostracism and therefore did not engage in public affairs, but on campaigns he was brave and looked for dangers. When Aristides died, Themistocles was in exile, and Cimon's campaigns were kept for the most part outside Hellas, then Pericles enthusiastically set to political activity. He took the side of democracy and the poor, and not the side of the rich and aristocrats - contrary to his natural inclinations, completely non-democratic. Apparently, he was afraid of being suspected of striving for tyranny, and besides, he saw that Cimon was on the side of the aristocrats and was extremely loved by them. Therefore, he enlisted the favor of the people in order to ensure his safety and gain strength to fight Kimon.

Immediately after this, Pericles changed his whole way of life. In the city he was seen walking along only one road - to the square and to the Council. He refused invitations to dinners and all such friendly, short relations ... Pericles behaved in the same way in relation to the people: in order not to satiate him with his constant presence, he appeared among the people only at times, spoke not on every business and did not always speak in the National Assembly, but reserved himself ... for important matters, and did everything else through his friends and other speakers sent by him. One of them, they say, was Ephialtes, who crushed the power of the Areopagus...

8. Pericles, tuning his speech like a musical instrument ... far surpassed all orators. For this reason, they say, he was given his famous nickname. However, some think that he was nicknamed the "Olympian" for the buildings with which he decorated the city, others - that for his successes in state activity and in command of the army; and there is nothing incredible that a combination of many of the qualities inherent in him contributed to his fame. However, from the comedies of that time, the authors of which often commemorate his name both seriously and with laughter, it is clear that this nickname was given to him mainly for his gift of speech: as they say, he thundered and threw lightning when he spoke to the people , and wore a terrible perun on the tongue ...

9. Thucydides depicts the state system under Pericles as aristocratic, which was democratic only in name, but in fact was the domination of one dominant person. According to many other authors, Pericles accustomed the people to cleruchia - receiving money for spectacles, receiving rewards; as a result of this bad habit, the people, from a modest and industrious under the influence of the then political measures, became wasteful and self-willed. Consider the reason for this change on the basis of facts.

At first, as mentioned above, Pericles, in the struggle with the glory of Cimon, tried to win the favor of the people; he was inferior to Cimon in wealth and cash with which he attracted the poor. Kimon invited citizens in need to dine every day, dressed the elderly, removed the fences from his estates, so that whoever wanted to use their fruits. Pericles, feeling defeated by such demagogic devices, on the advice of Damonides of Ei, turned to the division of public money, as Aristotle testifies. By distributing money for spectacles, paying remuneration for the performance of judicial and other duties, and various assistance, Pericles bribed the masses of the people and began to use them to fight the Areopagus, of which he was not a member ... So, Pericles with his adherents, having gained more influence from the people, defeated the Areopagus: most of the court cases were taken from him with the help of Ephialtes, Cimon was expelled by ostracism as a supporter of the Spartans and an enemy of democracy, although in wealth and origin he was not inferior to anyone else, although he won such glorious victories over the barbarians and enriched the fatherland with a large amount money and spoils of war, as recounted in his biography. So great was the power of Pericles among the people!

10. The expulsion by means of ostracism of persons subjected to it was limited by law to a certain period - ten years ...

11 .... Pericles then especially loosened the bridle of the people and began to be guided in his policy by the desire to please him: he constantly arranged some kind of solemn spectacles, or feasts, or processions in the city, occupied the inhabitants with noble entertainments, sent sixty triremes every year, on which many citizens sailed for eight months and received a salary, at the same time acquiring skill and knowledge in maritime affairs. In addition, he sent a thousand Cleruchians to Chersonesus, five hundred to Naxos, half of this number to Andros, a thousand to Thrace to settle among the Bisalts, others to Italy, with the renewal of Sybaris, which they now began to call Furies. In carrying out these activities, he was guided by the desire to free the city from the idle and restless crowd due to idleness and at the same time help the poor people, as well as keep the allies under fear and surveillance in order to prevent their attempts to revolt by the settlement of Athenian citizens near them.

12. But what gave the inhabitants the most pleasure and served as an ornament to the city, which led the whole world to astonishment, which, finally, is the only proof that the illustrious power of Hellas and her former wealth is not a false rumor, is the construction of magnificent buildings. But for this, more than for all the rest of the political activity of Pericles, the enemies condemned him and blackened him in the National Assembly. “The people are dishonoring themselves,” they shouted, “it is notorious for the fact that Pericles transferred the common Hellenic treasury to himself from Delos; The most plausible pretext by which the people can justify this reproach is that the fear of the barbarians made them take the common treasury from there and keep it in a safe place; but this justification was taken away from the people by Pericles. The Hellenes understand that they endure terrible violence and are exposed to open tyranny, seeing that with the money they are forced to contribute, intended for war, we gild and decorate the city, like a dandy woman, hanging it with expensive marble, statues of gods and temples worth thousands talents."

In view of this, Pericles pointed out to the people: “The Athenians are not obliged to give an account to the allies in money, because they wage war in their defense and hold back the barbarians, while the allies do not supply anything - neither a horse, nor a ship, nor a hoplite, but only pay money; and money does not belong to the one who gives it, but to the one who receives it, if he delivers what he receives for. But if the state is sufficiently supplied with articles needed for war, it is necessary to spend its wealth on such works, which, after their completion, will bring eternal glory to the state, and during the execution will immediately serve as a source of prosperity, due to the fact that all kinds of work will appear and various needs that awaken all sorts of crafts, give employment to all hands, deliver earnings to almost the entire state, so that it decorates and feeds itself at its own expense. And indeed, people young and strong were given earnings from social sums by campaigns; and Pericles wanted that the working masses, who did not carry out military service, should not be destitute, but at the same time that they should not receive money in inactivity and idleness.

Therefore, Pericles presented to the people many grandiose projects of buildings and work plans that required the use of various crafts and were designed for a long time, so that the population remaining in the city had the right to use public sums no less than citizens who were in the fleet, in garrisons, on campaigns ....

14. Thucydides and the orators of his party raised the cry that Pericles wasted money and deprived the state of revenues. Then Pericles in the Assembly asked the people whether he found that much had been spent. The answer was that a lot. “In that case,” said Pericles, “let these costs be not on your account, but on mine, and on the buildings I will write my name.” After these words of Pericles, the people, whether admiring the greatness of his spirit, or not wanting to yield to him the glory of such buildings, shouted that he attributed all the costs to the public account and spent, sparing nothing. Finally, he entered into a fight with Thucydides, at the risk of being ostracized himself. He achieved the expulsion of Thucydides and defeated the opposing party.

15. When in this way discord was completely eliminated and complete unity and harmony came in the state, Pericles concentrated in himself both Athens itself and all the affairs that depended on the Athenians - the contributions of the allies, the army, the fleet, the islands, the sea, the great power, the source of which both Greeks and barbarians served, and the supreme dominion, protected by conquered peoples, friendship with kings and alliance with petty rulers.

But Pericles was no longer the same - he was not, as before, an obedient instrument of the people, easily yielding and peaceful to the passions of the crowd, as if to the breaths of the wind; instead of the former weak, sometimes somewhat compliant demagogy, like pleasant, gentle music, in his policy he dragged out the song in an aristocratic and monarchical way and carried out this policy in accordance with the public good straightforwardly and adamantly. For the most part, he led the people with persuasion and instruction, so that the people themselves wanted the same. However, there were cases when the people expressed discontent; then Pericles pulled the reins and, directing him to his own good, forced him to obey his will ...

In a people that has such a strong power, all kinds of passions naturally arise. Pericles alone knew how to skillfully manage them, influencing the people mainly with hope and fear, as if with two rudders: either he restrained his impudent self-confidence, then, when his spirit was low, he encouraged and consoled him. He proved by this that eloquence, in the words of Plato, is the art of controlling souls and that its main task lies in the ability to correctly approach various characters and passions, as if to some tones and sounds of the soul, the extraction of which requires a touch or blow of a very skillful hands. However, the reason for this was not just the power of the word, but, as Thucydides says, the glory of his life and trust in him: everyone saw his disinterestedness and incorruptibility. Although he made a great city the greatest and richest, although he surpassed in power many kings and tyrants, some of whom made agreements with him, binding even on their sons, he did not increase his fortune by one drachma over that which his father had left him.

16. And meanwhile he was omnipotent; Thucydides speaks of this directly; an indirect proof of this is the malicious antics of comedians, who call his friends new pisistratids, and they demand an oath from him that he will not be a tyrant, since his prominence is not consistent with democracy and is too burdensome. And Teleclides points out that the Athenians provided him

All tribute from the cities; he could bind any city or leave it free,

And protect it with a strong wall and destroy the walls again.

Everything is in his hands: alliances, and power, and strength, and peace, and wealth.

This position of Pericles was not a happy accident, it was not the highest point of some fleeting brilliant state activity or the grace of the people for it - no, for forty years he excelled among the Ephialtes, Leocrates, Mironides, Cimons, Tolmids and Thucydides, and after the fall of Thucydides and exiled by ostracism, he had at least fifteen years of uninterrupted, sole power, although the position of strategist is given for one year. With such power, he remained incorruptible, despite the fact that he was not indifferent to money matters.

When Pericles ... was at the height of his political power ... he proposed that only those whose father and mother were Athenian citizens should be considered Athenian citizens. When the Egyptian king sent forty thousand coppers of wheat as a gift to the people, and the citizens had to divide it among themselves, then on the basis of this law a lot of lawsuits arose against illegitimate children, the origin of which until then was either not known or looked at it through the fingers; many also fell victim to false denunciations. On this basis, almost five thousand people were found guilty and sold into slavery; and the number of those who retained the right of citizenship and were recognized as real Athenians turned out to be equal to fourteen thousand two hundred and forty ...

When Pericles was already at death, the best citizens and his surviving friends were sitting around him. They talked about his high qualities and political power, listed his exploits and the number of trophies: he erected nine trophies in memory of the victories won under his leadership for the glory of the fatherland. So they said to each other, thinking that he had already lost consciousness and did not understand them. But Pericles listened attentively to all this and, interrupting their conversation, said that he was surprised how they glorified and recalled such merits of him, in which an equal share belongs to happiness and which had already happened to many commanders, but they don’t talk about the most glorious and important merit. : "Not a single Athenian citizen," he added, "did not put on a black cloak because of me."

As for Pericles, the events made the Athenians feel what he was for them, and regret him. People who were weary of his power during his lifetime, because it eclipsed them, but now, after he was gone, having experienced the power of other orators and leaders, they confessed that there had never been a person who knew better than him how to combine modesty with a sense of dignity and majesty with meekness. And his strength, which aroused envy and which was called autocracy and tyranny, as they now understood, was the saving stronghold of the state system: destructive misfortunes fell upon the state and a deep corruption of morals was revealed, which, weakening and humbled it, did not allow it to manifest itself and turn into incurable disease.

The text is given according to the edition: Aristotle. "Politics. Athenian polity". Series: "From the classical heritage". M, Thought, 1997, p. 271-343.

PART ONE

X. Development of Democracy

26. This is how the right of supervision was taken away from the council of the Areopagites. And after that, the state system began to lose its strict order more and more due to the fault of people who set themselves demagogic goals ...

2 Although in general the Athenians did not adhere to the laws as strictly as before, nevertheless the order of electing the nine archons was not changed; only in the sixth year after the death of Ephialtes did they decide that the preliminary elections of candidates for the further drawing of lots in the commission of nine archons should also be made from the Zeugites, and for the first time Mnesifides was archon from among them. And until that time, all were from horsemen and pentakosiomedimni, while Zeugites usually performed ordinary posts, unless any deviation from the prescriptions of the laws was allowed. 3 In the fifth year after this, under the archon Lysicrates, thirty judges were again established, the so-called "demes", and in the third year after it, under Antidotus, due to an excessive number of citizens, at the suggestion of Pericles, they decided that they could not have civil rights one who is not descended from both citizens.

27. After that, Pericles acted as a demagogue ... Then the state system became even more democratic. Pericles took away some rights from the Areopagites and especially strongly insisted on the development of maritime power in the state. Thanks to her, the common people felt their power and tried to concentrate all political rights in their hands.
2 Then, in the 49th year after the battle of Salamis, under the archon Pythodorus, a war began with the Peloponnesians, during which the people, shut up in the city and accustomed to receiving a salary in military service, began to show more determination, partly consciously, partly from necessity, to govern the state himself.
3 Pericles also introduced salaries in the courts for the first time, using a demagogic device in opposition to the wealth of Cimon. The fact is that Cimon, having a purely royal condition, at first brilliantly performed only public liturgies, then he began to provide content for many of his demos. So, anyone from the Lakiads who wished could come to him every day and receive a modest allowance. In addition, his estates were all unfenced, so that anyone who wished could enjoy the fruits. 4 Pericles, not having the fortune to compete with him in generosity, took the advice of Damonides of Ei (this Damonides was considered in many cases the adviser of Pericles, therefore he was subsequently ostracized). This advice was that since Pericles does not have the same personal means as Cimon, then it is necessary to give the people their own means. For these reasons, Pericles introduced a salary for judges. On this basis, some consider him the culprit of moral decay, since the election is always bothered not so much by decent people as by chance people. 5 After this, bribery also began, and Anitus was the first to set an example of this, after he had been a general in the campaign near Pylos. Having been brought to trial by some for the loss of Pylos, he bribed the court and obtained an acquittal.

28. While Pericles was at the head of the people, the affairs of state were comparatively well; when he died, they went much worse ...

PART ONE

IV. Archons

55 ... As for the so-called nine archons ... At present, six Thesmothetes and a secretary to them are elected by lot, in addition, an archon, a basileus and a polemarch - one from each phylum in turn. (2) They are subject to dokimasia first of all in the Council of Five Hundred - all except the secretary, and this latter - only in court, like other officials (all elected by lot and show of hands, take office only after dokimasiy), nine archons - both in the Council, and secondarily in court. At the same time, in the past, the one who was rejected at the dokimasia by the Council could no longer take office, but now an appeal to the court is allowed, and this latter has a decisive vote in the dokimasia ...

56 ... (2) The Archon, immediately after taking office, first of all announces through the herald that everyone is allowed to own the property that everyone had before he took office, and to keep it until the end of his government. (3) Then he appoints three of the wealthiest of all Athenians as choregines to represent the tragedies ... (4) Processions are under his authority: first, that which is arranged in honor of Asclepius ... He also organizes competitions in Dionysius and Thargelia. These are the festivals for which he has care.
(6) In addition, complaints are submitted to him in public and private matters. He examines them and sends them to court. These include cases of ill-treatment of parents, ill-treatment of orphans, ill-treatment of an heiress, damage to an orphan's property, insanity when someone accuses another of having lost his mind and wasting his fortune ... . At the same time, he has the right to impose disciplinary sanctions on the perpetrators or bring them to justice. Further, he leases the property of orphans and heirs until the woman is 14 years old, and takes security from the tenants. Finally, he exacts maintenance from the guardians if they do not give it to the children.

57… Basileus is in charge first of all of the mysteries… then of Dionysius… He also arranges all competitions with torches; he also manages his father's sacrifices, one might say, all.
(2) Written complaints are submitted to him in cases of wickedness, and also in cases where someone disputes with another the right to the priesthood. Then, he resolves all disputes between clans and priests on matters of worship. Finally, all murder proceedings are initiated with him, and it is his duty to declare the criminal deprived of the protection of laws.
(3) Proceedings for murder and wounding, if one intentionally kills or injures another, are dealt with in the Areopagus; also cases of poisoning, if someone causes death by giving poison, and cases of arson. This is exclusively the circle of cases judged by the Council of the Areopagus ... The judges sit in a sacred place under the open sky, and during the trial the basileus takes off his wreath. A person who bears such an accusation is not allowed to visit sacred places all this time, and he is not even supposed to enter the square; but at that moment he enters a sacred place and there he speaks in his defense...

58. Polemarchos sacrifices to Artemis the Huntress and Enialius... (2) He also initiates private lawsuits concerning meteks, equally liable and proxenes... (3) He personally litigates in court for violation of duties in relation to the former owner and for lack of a prostate , about the inheritances and heirs of the metecs, and in general the polemarch is in charge of all those matters among the metecs, which the archon sorts out from the citizens.

59. The Thesmothetes have the power, first of all, to appoint which judicial commissions and on which days they should judge, then to transfer the leadership of these commissions to officials; these latter act according to the instructions of the Thesmothetes. (2) Then, they report to the people on the emergency declarations received, put forward cases of the removal of officials by test vote, all kinds of proposals for preliminary sentences, complaints about illegalities and statements that the proposed law is unsuitable, also about the actions of the proedra and epistats and about the reporting of strategists ...

ARISTOTLE. POLICY

II, 4. That the equalization of property has its significance in the public community, this, apparently, was clearly recognized even by some of the ancient legislators. So, for example, Solon established a law that is also in force in other states, which prohibits the acquisition of land in any amount.

II, 9, 2. Solon is considered by some to be a good legislator. He, as they say, overthrew the oligarchy, which was excessive at that time, delivered the people from slavery and established democracy “according to the precepts of the fathers”, successfully establishing a mixed system: namely, the Areopagus is an oligarchic institution, the filling of posts by elections is aristocratic, the trial by jury is democratic. Solon, apparently, did not abolish the institutions that existed before - the council of the Areopagus and the election of officials, but established democracy by the very fact that he made jury trials from the entire composition of citizens. That is why some people accuse him: he, they say, abolished the first, when he gave power over everything to the court, since the court is chosen by lot. It was precisely when the court gained power that the people, like a tyrant, began to be catered to and finally the polity was turned into a modern democracy.

III, 2, 10 ... Here is what, for example, Cleisthenes did in Athens after the expulsion of the tyrants: he included many foreigners and slaves living there in the phyla. With regard to them, it is not a question of who is a citizen, but how he became one - illegally or by right.

VI, 2, 9-11, 6-27. In order to establish this type of democracy and strengthen the people, its leaders usually try to take into their midst as many people as possible and make citizens not only legitimate, but also illegitimate, and even those in whom only one of the parents has civil rights - father or mother. The fact is that all these elements especially sympathize with such a democracy ... Further, such methods are also useful for such a democracy, which Cleisthenes used in Athens when he wanted to strengthen democracy, and those figures who tried to establish a democratic system in Cyrene. Indeed, it is necessary to organize new phyla and phratries, and, moreover, in large numbers; private cults should be united in a small number and made public; in a word, it is necessary to invent all means so that everything is mixed up with each other as much as possible, and at the same time, so that the former associations are broken.

Aristotle. Athenian polity. Applications. M.-L., Sotsekgiz, 1936, S.119-152.

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A READER ON THE HISTORY OF THE ANCIENT WORLD AGOGICH PUBLISHING HOUSE OF THE MINISTRY ENLIGHTENED THE RSFSR ANCIENT EAST APPROVED BY THE MINISTRY OF ENLIGHTENMENT R.S.F.S.R. MOSCOW 195 0 Compiled by IS Katsnel'son and DG Raeder PREFACE The farther away from our days, into the depths of centuries and millennia, the historian-researcher goes, the more difficulties he has to overcome on his way. If a scientist has at his disposal thousands, and sometimes tens of thousands of the most diverse documents for studying the recent past, the understanding of which from the point of view of philology does not raise any doubts, then the historian of antiquity has to restore the past of disappeared peoples and extinct civilizations from fragmentary and scattered The history of some countries, such as Greece, Rome, China, is better known.The tradition has never been completely broken here, a sufficient number of documents have been preserved, including many very informative ones. Nevertheless, certain periods of their history, especially the early ones, are still unclear. So, for example, we are very poorly informed about Greece in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. or about the reign of the "kings" in Rome. The past of other countries has only recently become the property of science thanks to the joint efforts of several generations of archaeologists. They extracted archives, victory inscriptions, letters and treaties, frescoes and reliefs from the ruins of disappeared cities and temples, from burials and residential buildings, with the help of which we are now able to more or less fully present the main events and facts of the history of the peoples of antiquity, in including the peoples of the Middle East, as well as replenish our knowledge of the most ancient periods of ancient countries. However, the scientist here is often at the mercy of chance. While the history of some peoples or periods is almost unknown to us due to the lack of sources, we are better aware of other states and eras. Track; It is necessary to take into account other circumstances: "a relatively limited number of written monuments, their fragmentation, one-sidedness of content, the difficulty of understanding, due both to insufficient knowledge of the ancient Eastern languages ​​(many words and phrases are still not" solved or seem to be controversial), so and obscurity and incompleteness of exposition. If in the bourgeois historiography of modern and recent history, where, it would seem, documents provide less opportunity for various kinds of rumors and falsifications, we usually meet with a conscious distortion of historical reality, with a biased interpretation of sources and a juggling of facts, then all the more bourgeois scholars freely deal with the sources of ancient history, in particular, with texts. The fragmentation and incompleteness of the latter, the obscurity and difficulty of the language, provide ample opportunities for the most arbitrary and far-fetched interpretations to please the preconceived point of view of this or that bourgeois researcher, striving consciously or unconsciously to fulfill the social order of his masters. These circumstances largely explain why modern Anglo-American sociologists, historians, economists, philosophers, etc., are so eager to turn to the distant past. They borrow material from there for all sorts of dubious comparisons and comparisons in order to justify the capitalist system, to propagate various misanthropic racial theories. Not without reason, for example, the American senator Theodore Bilbo, in his book, published in 1947 under the sensational title "Choose between isolation and turning into bastards," seeks to prove, using all the methods of fascist racism, that the ancient "Aryan" civilizations of Egypt, India, Phoenicia, Carthage, Greece and Rome perished as a result of the fact that the ruling classes belonging to the "Caucasian race" allowed mixing, merging with non-Aryan races. From this he draws a conclusion about the threat of the death of the civilization of the white man, about the threat to the very existence of the United States as a result of the mixing of the blood of the white man with representatives of other races, primarily with Negroes. versions and modifications, the concept of the development of society - the notorious "cyclic" theory of E. Meyer - was based by him mainly on the material of ancient monuments, because it was they who provided him and his students and followers with wide opportunities for arbitrary and tendentious interpretation due to the indicated features inherent in them . Only with the help of the only scientific method, the method of dialectical and historical materialism, which established the laws of social development and outlined its main stages, can one determine the main features of the first class formation - the slaveholding, inherent in the ancient world. Only when scholars approached the study of sources from the standpoint of Marxist-Leninist theory were they able to find out what the school was. Racial theories in the service and imperialism. “Issues of the book of the office”, 1948. No. 2. p. 272. the emergence, existence and death of the first class, slave-owning states are caught, regardless of whether the latter represented one of the varieties of the ancient eastern despotism or the ancient policy - the city -states. This is the main merit of Soviet science. And here it is especially necessary to emphasize the fundamental need to work on primary sources, because only through a thorough analysis, a deeply thought-out interpretation of each word, each term, each provision, as a result of an accurate understanding of the general orientation of the text, one can come to substantiated and scientific conclusions corresponding to objective truth. not only brilliantly confirmed the validity of the doctrine of the development of society by Marx-Engels-Lenin-Stalin, but, in turn, supported it with concrete material, thus giving new proof of the genius of the founders of scientific socialism. Of course, the successes of Soviet historical science were not achieved all at once. I had to overcome both inertia and traditions inherited from bourgeois science, and the admiration inherent in some specialists for the indisputability of the authority of the "luminaries" of Western scientists, and the conscious desire of pests to present a distorted picture of the development of society. Much is still unclear, some problems are still the subject of controversy and controversy, but the main thing is that the nature of the slave society and the basic laws of its development, in particular, the ancient Eastern one, no longer raises doubts. Summing up what Marxist historiography has achieved, enriched by the works of Lenin and Stalin, we can come to the following conclusions on some of the most important problems. The first class societies arose where the geographical environment was most conducive to the acceleration of the development of productive forces and social relations and facilitated the transition from the communal-tribal system to the slave-owning system, for the geographical environment "... is undoubtedly one of the permanent and necessary conditions development of society and it, of course, affects the development of society - it accelerates or slows down the course of development of society "1. At the same time, of course, we must remember that "... its influence is not a determining influence, since changes and development of society occur incomparably faster than the changes and development of the geographic environment” 2. The tribes of nomadic hunters and pastoralists, who inhabited the boundless steppes of Central Asia, Arabia and Africa thousands of years ago, stood at the lower and middle stages of barbarism. , Questions 2 Ibid. 11th, 1945, p. 548. “Only by remaining in small numbers could they continue to be barbarians. They were shepherd tribes, hunters and warriors; their mode of production required a vast expanse of land for each individual, as is still the case among the Indian tribes of North America. When they increased in number, they reduced each other's area of ​​production. Therefore, the surplus population was forced to embark on those great fairy tale journeys that laid the foundation for the formation of peoples in ancient and modern Europe. So these tribes ended up in the valleys of the Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, the Yellow River, where the first class societies were born, the basis of the economy of which was agriculture, because it was here, in the valleys of the great rivers, that the conditions for its development were most favorable. “The state arose on the basis of the split of society into hostile classes, it arose in order to keep the exploited majority in check in the interests of the exploiting minority,” says Comrade Stalin. “Two main functions characterize the activities of the state: internal (main) - to keep the exploited majority in check and external (not main) - to expand the territory of its own, the ruling class at the expense of the territory of other states, or to protect the territory of its state from attacks by others. states” 2. The primitive communal system, not exposed to the influence of a more developed society, could not bypass the slave-owning mode of production in its development. It became slave-owning, not feudal. This is one of the main propositions of Marxism relating to social formations. Since the class society of the countries of the Ancient East was formed at the dawn of civilization in an original way, without the influence of other class societies, any kind of attempt to prove the existence of elements of a semi-feudal system in them objectively leads to a revision of the most important laws of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the development of society. In ancient Eastern despotisms there was a double form of exploitation in relation to two different social groups. The first of them, the right to receive rent-tax from rural communities - the "agricultural population", dates back to ancient times, to the exploitation of the tribal nobility of their fellow tribesmen, to relations that are still semi-patriarchal. For example, in the era of the decomposition of the tribal system, free Greek peasants of the Homeric period paid this rent tax to their basileus. The pharaoh of Egypt could transfer one or several rural communities into possession to his entourage in order to receive Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. IX, pp. 278-279. 2 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 604. taxes similar to those paid by rural obinitts to the granaries of the basileus. It must be emphasized that in no case should one compare the service just mentioned, imposed on rural communities under the conditions of ancient Eastern despotism, or Homeric Greece, or the royal period of Rome, with feudal rent, as bourgeois historians did and do, and after them and some Soviet scientists. The rent-analogue, the "tribute" levied on free community members, is an inconsistency created in the conditions of a decaying patriarchal system. The second form of exploitation inherent in ancient Eastern society, according to the statements of Marx, is slave-owning exploitation, exploitation by kings, priests, nobility, and then by the most prosperous strata of the free "non-agricultural population" - slaves. Compared to the first form, it is more progressive. For if the exploitation of the "agricultural population" goes back to semi-patriarchal duties, then the exploitation of slaves was created in the conditions of a class society and was expressed, first of all, in the work on the creation of gigantic structures, primarily irrigation. The presence of these two forms of exploitation - patriarchal and slave-owning - creates the peculiarity of the first class society, which took shape in ancient times in Asia and Egypt. From here it is possible to derive a clear and precise definition of the ancient Eastern society, as a semi-worker in a businesslike o-semi-semi-pat. b II about g about. The leading, progressive in the East was then, of course, slave-owning exploitation. Therefore, we have the right to call these early class societies that existed in Asia and Egypt in antiquity, in the era preceding the ancient world, also primarily with k and m and. Thus, the ancient Eastern despotisms were an organization with the help of which the ruling class (the king-despot, the nobility, the priesthood, the commercial and usurious stratum, sometimes the military caste, etc.) carried out the exploitation of the community members and slaves. Numerous wars, common for the states of the Ancient East, were waged in the interests of the ruling class in order to capture slaves, wealth and territories of neighboring countries. For bourgeois science, it is usual to strive to contrast or separate the past of the countries and peoples of the Middle East from the most ancient periods in the history of India and China. The former are considered by her as the forerunners of ancient and, consequently, European culture, which was fixed at the end of the 19th century. French scientist G. Maspero in the term "classical East", who especially sharply emphasized the difference between the ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean and adjacent areas and countries Far East. The first was given special attention in the construction of world history. Meanwhile, for India and China, which contributed their share to the treasury of human culture, in the era of the birth and existence of the TaiM slave-owning system, the same socio-economic relations, the same general laws of development are characteristic as for the countries of the Near East. All of them represent a single whole - one formation. This is confirmed not only by the data of recent archaeological excavations, but also by an unbiased study of written sources. It is a mistake, however, to unconditionally identify all the countries of the Ancient East, without distinguishing between the features of the development of individual states, just as one should not, for example, erase the differences in the history of Attica, Sparta, Eiotia, Macedonia. It is necessary to take into account the specific conditions that determined distinctive features historical existence of each people. If Egypt and Babylon can be characterized as agricultural slave-owning despotisms, and in the first of them the unlimited power of the king reached its apogee, then the Phoenician city-states serve as an example of a typical trading and slave-owning society in which the power of the king was limited to the nobility and the richest merchants. In the same way, Assyria is an example of a predatory, military-predatory state, which based its well-being on the ruthless exploitation and plunder of conquered countries. The history of the primitive slave-owning despotisms of the Ancient East is closely connected with the ancient world. Greece and Rome qualitatively, fundamentally, do not stand out among other ancient societies. They represent only the highest stage in the development of the slave-owning formation. In the Neo-Babylonian kingdom of the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. we encounter such forms of exploitation of slaves as, for example, peculia, which bring to mind imperial Rome, and Sparta, with its collective slavery, can be compared in this respect with the city-states of Sumer at the beginning of the third millennium. The examples just given are not isolated. However, it is impossible to pass by some of the features inherent in primitive slave-owning societies, which distinguish them from ancient ones. These features are manifested primarily in the preservation of the remnants of the primitive communal system and elements of patriarchal relations, in the long existence of the rural community and the slow, stagnant forms of its development, which are explained to a large extent by the fact that the basis of the economy among the leading eastern peoples is Irri. gation, artificial irrigation. “Agriculture here is built mainly on artificial irrigation, and this irrigation is already a matter for the community, region, or central government.” XXI, p. 494. forms of land ownership. “In the Asian (at least predominant) form, there is no property of an individual, but only his possession; the real, real owner is the community...”1. Related to this is patriarchal domestic slavery, so characteristic of most countries of the Ancient East. Further, for primitive slave-owning societies, the undifferentiated unity of town and country is very typical. Cities usually exist only as administrative, religious or commercial centers, and a significant part of their population is employed in agriculture. Handicraft and agriculture are still united. The need to unite the efforts of individual communities for the construction of an irrigation system creates, at a certain level, the development of productive forces, the prerequisites for the formation of a political superstructure in the form of an oriental despotism, which has reached its most perfect embodiment in the unlimited power of the Egyptian pharaoh, likened to a god. He, like the kings of other countries of the Ancient East, carried out “... a binding unity realized in a despot...” 2, which rallied rural communities into a single whole. It was they who constituted "...a solid basis for stagnant Asiatic despotism" 3. The development of private property, associated with the development of lands not irrigated by the communal irrigation system, the so-called high fields, and with the exploitation of the labor of slaves, leads to a more or less rapid , depending on the specific development conditions of each country, the stratification of the rural community. But there are people deprived of the means of production, forced to go into bondage to the rich. Over time, the latter completely enslave them. Debt slavery and the heavy oppression to which the masses of ordinary community members were subjected in the Eastern despotisms prevent the employment of slave war prisoners in large numbers. The number of foreign slaves was relatively small, and their labor did not penetrate to such an extent into crafts and agriculture, ousting free producers from there, as was the case in Greece and Rome. In the countries of the Ancient East, along with the slave, the community member remained the direct producer, who, if he worked throughout the year not for himself, occupied the position of a slave. In other cases, when the community still retained sufficient strength to resist the oppression of the ruling class, uprisings broke out, similar to the upheavals in Lagash under Urukagin or in Egypt at the end of the Middle Kingdom, undermining the foundations of the slave system and hastening its death. However, this resistance of the community members was eventually crushed, 1 Marx, Forms Preceding the Capitalist Proletarian Revolution, 1939, No. 3, p. 158. 2 Ibid., p. 152. I Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XXI, p. 501. to production. and the oppression continued as before; and since “it was the community members who replenished the ranks of the army, their ruin and enslavement usually led to a weakening of the military potential of the state. Often, therefore, it fell under the yoke of another, stronger in given time state, and then the masses of the working population experienced a double oppression until, for the same reasons, the conquerors themselves became the prey of new conquerors. The history of the ancient Eastern despotisms of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, as well as the later Hellenistic monarchies, gives many examples of this. They included different tribes and peoples, bound together only by the force of the victorious weapon. They were not united by political, economic, or national interests, since nations did not yet exist at that time. They could disintegrate and disintegrated as a result of the aggravation of internal contradictions, as a result of blows from the outside. “These were not nations, but random and loosely connected conglomerates of groups, disintegrating and uniting depending on the success or defeat of this or that conqueror” *. Modern bourgeois science seeks to belittle or pass over in silence the significance of the contribution made by the "non-Aryan" peoples of the ancient Eastern countries to the treasury of universal human culture, and in every possible way extols the "creative genius" of the ancient Hellenes and Romans, although both of them themselves pointed to the Egyptians and Babylonians as their teachers. Indeed, the better we get acquainted with the history and history of the culture of the countries of the Ancient East, the more we are convinced that it is here that we should look for the beginning of many sciences (although they are still inseparable from religion) - astronomy, mathematics, medicine. Here the first alphabet and the first written literary works appeared. The greatest monuments of fine arts and literature are created here. In Greece and Rome, the science, literature and art of the slave-owning society reach their peak and for the first time in history try to free themselves from the shackles of a religious worldview. Together with the cultural heritage of Greece and Rome, humanity also received the cultural heritage of the great civilizations of the Ancient East. Until the deciphering of the Cretan writings is completed, it is impossible to give an accurate description of the socio-economic structure of ancient Crete. However, the more complete our knowledge of it becomes due to the successes of archeology, the more definitely it can be argued that what developed on this island at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. the state should be likened to other contemporary primitive slave-owning states of the eastern Mediterranean. The Cretan maritime power, which subjugated part of the islands of the Aegean Sea, ruled by 1 Stalin, Soch., vol. 2, ctd. ‘293. despot king and was in active trade relations with the surrounding countries, resembles the Phoenician cities, although its political streak, apparently, differed from the political system of the latter. The prosperity of the island was greatly facilitated by its advantageous position in the center of maritime trade routes. According to a number of indirect signs, it is possible to establish the existence of slavery in it, for only slaves could be used as rowers on the numerous ships of the Cretans, who combined trade with robbery; only slaves, together with the involuntary local population, could build the huge, luxurious palaces of Phaistos and Knossos, lay roads or work in workshops that produced goods for sale. It is natural to assume that the intensification of exploitation and the ruin of the broad masses of the population ultimately led to the weakening of the Cretan state and facilitated its conquest in the 14th century. The Mycenaean state, which united the Peloponnese, the islands adjacent to it, and some areas of central and northern Greece. The socio-political structure of the Mycenaean state in many respects resembled the organization of the Cretan society. One might think that the aristocratic families, whose well-being was based on agriculture, the exploitation of the agricultural population, especially the conquered countries, on predatory wars and raids, enjoyed great influence here, the despotic power of the king was limited to them. Crete connected the countries of Asia, Africa and Europe. Especially great is the significance of his culture, bright, original, but still influenced by the culture of other peoples (for example, the Egyptians and the Hittites), on which he, in turn, had a significant influence. The origins of Greek mythology, religion and art, and even legislation (for example, the Hortian Laws) are undoubtedly to be found on this island, which was the link between the ancient Eastern despotisms and the ancient world. In terms of stages, the society of Homeric Greece (XII-VIII centuries BC) is more primitive than the Cretan sea power or the Mycenaean state, since it was a pre-slave-owning, pre-class society. However, the path of its development was different, different from the path of development of the countries of the Ancient East, to which the latter can be attributed. Homer's poems "Iliad" and "Odyssey" - our main sources - testify that this was "The full flowering of the highest stage of barbarism .." 1; every adult male in the tribe was a warrior; there was no public authority separate from the people that could be opposed to it. “Primitive democracy was still in full bloom...” 2. Classical in clarity 1 Marx and Engels, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part 1. “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”, p. 13. in the conclusion of Chapter IV (“Greek race”) of his immortal work “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State”: “We see, therefore, in the Greek social system of the heroic era, the ancient clan organization is still in full thus, and the beginning of its destruction: paternal right with the inheritance of property by children, which favors the accumulation of wealth in the family and strengthens the family in contrast to the clan; the impact of property differences on social order through the formation of the first rudiments of hereditary nobility and monarchy; slavery, at first only prisoners of war, but already preparing the possibility of enslaving one's own tribesmen and even relatives; the already ongoing degeneration of the former war between tribes into systematic robbery on land<и на море в целях захвата скота, рабов и сокровищ, превращение ее в регулярный промысел; од­ ним словом, восхваление и почитание богатстза как высшего блага и злоупотребление древними родовыми учреждениями для оправдания насильственного грабежа богатств» К Постоянные войны, которые способствовали объединению об­ щин, были основным средством добывания рабов. Однако раб­ ство носило тогда патриархальный, домашний характер. Труд рабов использовался преимущественно для домашних услуг или в хозяйствах родовой знати, которая стремится к закабалению своих соплеменников. Таким образом, в недрах родового обще­ ства формируются классы. «Недоставало только одного: учре­ ждения, которое обеспечивало бы вновь приобретенные богат­ ства отдельных лиц не только от коммунистических традиций ро­ дового строя, которое пе только сделало бы прежде столь мало ценившуюся частную собственность священной и это освящение объявило бы высшей целью всякого человеческого общества, но и приложило бы печать всеобщего общественного признания к развивающимся одна за другой новым формам приобретения соб­ ственности, следовательно и к непрерывно ускоряющемуся на­ коплению богатства; нехватало учреждения, которое увековечи­ вало бы не только начинающееся разделение общества на классы, но и право имущего класса на эксплоатацию неимущих и господство первого над последними. И такое учреждение появилось. Было изобретено г о с у д а р ­ ство » 2. Но было бы неверно отождествлять все греческие государ­ ства. Каждое из них шло своим неповторимым путем развития. И наиболее типичны в этом отношении два - Спарта и Афины, сыгравшие ведущую роль в истории Эллады. | Маркс и Э н г е л ь с, Собр. соч., т. XVI, ч. семьи, частном событием мости и г о су д а р с тв а », стр. 86. 2 Т а м ж е, стр 8 6 - 87. 1, «Происхождение Государство в Спарте возникло раньше, в результате пере­ населения Пелопоннеса после проникновения туда дорийцев, стремившихся силой овладеть плодородными землями и порабо­ тить окружающие племена. На основании свидетельств античных авторов закабаление илотов должно быть объяснено завоева­ нием, а не «экономическими условиями», как пытаются доказать буржуазные ученые и в частности Э. Мейер. Этот способ эксплоа­ тации, напоминающий по форме крепостнический, явился след­ ствием завоевания и был более примитивным, чем эксплоатация рабов «Чтобы извлекать из пего (раба. - Ре д.) пользу, необ­ ходимо заранее приготовить, во-первых, материалы и орудия труда, во-вторых, средства для скудного пропитания раба»2. Спартиатам этого не требовалось. Они силой оружия покорили илотов и заставили их платить дань. Различие между рабами и илотами сводилось в основном лишь к тому, что в первом случае победители отрывали побе­ жденных от средств производства и уводили их к себе для ра­ боты в своем собственном хозяйстве или продавали, а во вто­ ром случае они оставляли покоренных па земле и принуждали выполнять различного рода повинности. Для устрашения илотов и удержания их в покорности применялись такие средства тер­ рора, как криптии. Согласно Плутарху, эфоры ежегодно объяв­ ляли илотам войну, чтобы предоставить спартиатам право безнаказиого истребления их Столь жестокое обращение могло иметь место в античном обществе лишь по отношению к потомкам покоренных силой оружия членов враждебных общин или племен, а не по отноше­ нию к обедневшим членам своей общины. Илоты поэтому обычно всегда противопоставлялись лакедемонянам, членам господ­ ствующей городской обшипы, и другим представителям класса свободных, например, периекам Эксплоатация илотов (а также близких к ним по положению пенестов, кларотов и т. д.) харак­ терна именно для наиболее отсталых обществ, например, Спарты, Фессалии. Крита, древнейшей Ассирии и т. д. По сравнению с ними даже примитивно-раго"вллдельческие государства архаиче­ ского Шумера или Египта несомненно более прогрессивны. Иными были, причины р.о"зиикновенпя и пути развития клас­ сового общества в Аттике, которое «...является в высшей степени типгчпы.м примером образования государства, потому что оно, с одной стороны, происходит в чистом виде, без всякого вмеша­ тельства внешнего или внутреннего насилия, - захват власти Пизистратом не оставил никаких следов своего короткого суще­ ствования.- с другО"П стороны, потому, что в данном случае очень развитая форма государства, демократическая республика, воз1 VIII, 2 3 Ф у к и д и д I, 5, "1; 11 я р. с. Маркс и П л у г а р х, 101; Л р и с т о т е л Политика 1, б, 2; С т р а б о н, л п и и, II!, 20 и т. д. Э и г о л!) с, Соб р. соч., т. XIV, «А н ти-Дю р и нг», стр. 163. Л и к у р г, 28. пикает непосредственно из родового общества, и, наконец, по­ тому, что мы в достаточной степени знаем все существенные по­ дробности образования этого государства» К Развитие производительных сил общин, объединившихся по­ степенно вокруг Афин, социальное расслоение внутри них, выде­ ление земледельческой аристократии, жестоко эксплоатировавшей своих соплеменников, концентрация земель, увеличение ко­ личества рабов, ростовщичество, расширение торговли и, как следствие, - рост денежного хозяйства, проникавшего «...точно разъедающая кислота, в основанный на натуральном хозяйстве исконный образ жизни сельских общин» 2. Все это «взрывало» прежние социальные установления и экономические связи. «Одним словом, родовой строй приходил к концу. Общество с каждым днем все более вырастало из его рамок; даже худшие отрицательные явления, которые возникали у всех на глазах, он не мог ни ослабить, ни устранить. А тем временем незаметно раз­ вилось государство» 3. Реформы Солона, проведенные в интересах частных земле­ владельцев и торговцев, устанавливали отчуждение и дробление земельных участков. Этим была отменена общинная собствен­ ность и разрушены основы общинно-родового строя. «Так как ро­ довой строй не мог оказывать эксплоатируемому народу ника­ кой помощи, то оставалось только возникающее государство. И оно действительно оказало помощь, введя конституцию Солона и в то же время снова усилившись за счет старого строя. Солон... открыл ряд так называемых политических революций, и притом с вторжением в отношения собственности. Все происходившие до сих пор революции были революциями для защиты одного вида собственности против другого вида собственности... в рево­ люции, произведенной Солоном, должна была пострадать соб­ ственность кредиторов в интересах собственности должников. Долги были попросту объявлены недействительными» 4. Вот по­ чему Афины, как и другие греческие полисы, не знали кабаль­ ного рабства. Последние остатки родового строя были уничто­ жены законодательством Клисфена. «В какой степени сложив­ шееся в главных своих чертах государство оказалось приспо­ собленным к новому общественному положению афинян, свиде­ тельствует быстрый расцвет богатства, торговли и промышленно­ сти. Классовый антагонизм, на котором покоились теперь обще­ ственные и политические учреждения, был уже не антагонизм между аристократией и простым народом, а между рабами и 1 С л ед у ет т в е р д о помнить, что крепостные отнош ения ф ео д а л ь н о й ф о р м а ­ не в р езу л ь т а те прямого зав оев а ни я, а в след ст в ие с л о ж н е й ш и х эк ономических условий. М а р к с и Энгельс, Собр. соч., т. XVJ, ч. I, ц и и с о зд а л и с ь стр 98. Та м 3 Та м 4 Т а м 2 ж е, стр. 90. ж е, стр. 93. ж е, стр 93. свободными, между неполноправными жителями и гражда­ нами» Огромное значение для Греции имели связи с Северным Причерноморьем, на которые следует обратить особое внима­ ние при изучении истории этой страны. Через Геллеспонт во время «великой колонизации» VII в. туда устремляются пред­ приимчивые торговцы в поисках нажпвы, политические изгнан­ ники, разоренные крестьяне и ремесленники в надежде на луч­ шую жизнь в далеких, неведомых краях. В устьях рек, впадаю­ щих в Черное п Азовское моря, в Крыму были основаны десятки колоний, которые вели оживленную торговлю с могущественной скифской державой. Трудно представить Афины, Коринф, Милет и другие полисы Эллады без скифского хлеба, сушеной рыбы, шерсти, мехов и рабов. В частности, снабжение Афин хлебом всегда было одним из основных моментов, определявших внеш­ нюю и внутреннюю политику различных политических партий. Дешевый привозной хлеб способствует интенсификации сель­ ского хозяйства торговых полисов. Благосостояние многих ре­ месленников и торговцев основывалось на обмене с Северным Причерноморьем. Не меньше было его значение > and in the Roman era, when the export of products, raw materials and slaves from here became even more intense and spread beyond the Balkan Peninsula to the western provinces of the Roman Empire. The penetration of the Greeks to the north influenced not only the Scythians, who adopted certain features of the Hellenic culture, and the neighboring peoples, but also left a noticeable imprint on the Greek colonies that bordered the coast of the Black and Azov Seas; in their art, craft and life, in turn, the significant influence of the Scythians is reflected. Roman culture, as is known, did not leave a noticeable trace in the regions of the Northern Black Sea region. One of the main problems of the history of Rome - the question of the origin of the plebs - still remains largely unclear due to the paucity of sources. However, it is certain that, like the helots in Sparta, the plebeians appeared as a result of conquest, and not as a result of the socio-economic stratification of society. “Meanwhile, the population of the city of Rome and the Roman region, expanded due to the conquest, increased; this growth was partly due to new settlers, partly due to the population of the subjugated, predominantly Latin, districts. All these new citizens ... stood outside the old clans, "curmia and tribes and, consequently, did not form part of the populus romanus, the Roman people proper" 2. The reforms of Servius Tullius played the same role in the history of Rome as the reforms of Solon and Cleisteps in the history of Athens. This is 1 Marx and Engels, 2 Ibid., p. 10G. Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 97. was in essence a revolution that put an end to the communal-tribal system and marked the transition to the state; “... its cause was rooted in the struggle between the plebs and the populus.” To the new, class society was determined by territorial rather than tribal ties, property status, not origin, was of primary importance in establishing political rights. “Thus, in Rome, even before the abolition of the so-called royal power, the ancient social system, based on personal blood ties, was destroyed, and in its place a new, real state system was created, based on territorial division and property differences. Public power was concentrated here in the hands of citizens who were obliged to serve military service, and was directed not only against slaves, but also against the so-called proletarians, who were not admitted to military service and were deprived of weapons. the struggle between patricians and plebeians for the expansion of the rights of the latter, for land, for limiting the arbitrariness of usurers. It becomes more complicated, especially in the II-I centuries. BC e., the mass movement of the oppressed class of slaves, to which the poor join. “The rich and the poor, the exploiters and the exploited, the full and the disenfranchised, the fierce class struggle between them - such is the picture of the slave system”3. First, the protest of the slaves, as, for example, it was in Greece in the 5th-4th centuries. BC e., was usually passive. Slaves spoiled tools and tools, ran away from their masters, which happened especially often during wars, when the forces of the slave state were distracted by external danger. Sometimes the slaves went over to the side of the enemy. So, during the Peloponnesian War, more than twenty thousand slaves after the defeat of the Athenians at Dekeley in 413 BC. e. defected to the Spartans. Subsequently, the slave-owning poleis negotiated diplomatically on measures to protect the interests of the ruling class. The same purpose was served by the means of intimidation, and a specially set up service to search for runaway slaves. However, even passive forms of struggle undermined the foundations of the economy of the slave-owning city-states, and sometimes, especially during the war, threatened their political independence. Even more dangerous for the exploiters were the open forms of protest - slave uprisings. They began in Greece in the 5th century. BC e. and most often broke out in the Peloponnese and in Sicily, where the number of rags was especially large. In essence, the political system of the Spartans and their administrative structure pursued one 1 Marks and Engssl, Sobr. cit., vol. XVI, part I, p. 107. 2 Tamzhe, p. 108. 3 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, ed. 11th, 1945, p. 555. the purpose is to keep the helots in subjection and prevent any attempt at resistance on their part. And it was usually in Sparta that the slaves rebelled, for the helots in Messenia belonged to the same nationality and it was easier for them to rally against the oppressors. Such were the uprisings in 464 and 425. BC e. The first one lasted over 10 years. The poor often joined the slaves. Slave uprisings are even more characteristic for Rome, where the slave-owning system reached its highest development and, consequently, the class contradictions inherent in ancient society were especially acute. Tens and hundreds of thousands of slaves accumulated in cities and latifundia as a result of victorious wars, cruel forms of exploitation, the unbearably heavy oppression to which they were subjected, the concentration of land and wealth, the dispossession of the peasantry, who could not compete with the cheap labor of slaves - all this created prerequisites for the manifestation of protest in an open and harsh form. Not without reason, during the 2nd and 1st centuries. BC e. in Sicily, in Asia Minor, and finally, in Rome itself, slaves and the free poor often rise up. They are trying to get by force from the slave owners what they cannot get from them peacefully: freedom and the possibility of a secure existence. Revolts of slaves and lumpenproletariat, civil wars the end of the Roman Republic undermined the foundations of the existing socio-economic system and ultimately led to its death. In order to maintain their dominance, the slave owners were forced to move to a new, more perfect organization - the principate - a hidden form of monarchy, and then to an open one - domination. The progressive, world-historical significance of the uprisings of the slaves and the poor lies in the sharpening of the contradictions of the slave-owning society and, consequently, the pace of its development. At this stage, however, they did not lead to the replacement of one formation by another, more progressive one, since they were not the bearers of a new mode of production, new production relations. That is why it is wrong to talk about the revolution of slaves in the II-I centuries. BC e. “Slaves, as we know, rebelled, staged riots, started civil wars, but they could never create a conscious majority leading the struggle of parties, they could not clearly understand what goal they were going for, and even at the most revolutionary moments of history they always found themselves pawns in the hands of the ruling youth classes! Only when the development of the productive forces of ancient society paved the way for the emergence of new social relations, when the prerequisites for feudalism in the form of a colony began to take shape in the depths of the slave state, only then did slaves and colonies emerge as a revolutionary class. 375, with the State*. sweeping away on its way, albeit under the slogan of a return to the communal-tribal system, the foundations of the obsolete slave-owning formation. It was the revolution of slaves and columns that "... liquidated the slave owners and abolished the slave-owning form of exploitation of the working people" K It also made it easier for the barbarian tribes to conquer Rome - "... all the" barbarians ", united after drinking a common enemy and overthrew Rome with thunder" 2 Thus, this revolution contributed to the establishment of a more progressive society at that time - a feudal society. These introductory remarks give only a general idea of ​​the pattern of development of slave-owning society and seek to facilitate familiarization with its main contradictions. Of course, they are far from exhausting the problems of the history of the first class formation, which the documents contained in this book should help the reader to understand. This anthology has been compiled anew and differs significantly from the one published in 1936 under my editorship ancient history". It not only surpasses the latter in volume, but is also completely different in the composition of the texts included in it and in the principles underlying their selection, and in the method of processing documents. Reader is intended primarily for students of historical faculties of higher educational institutions and for high school history teachers. Readers should provide students with material for seminars and pro-seminars, supplement and deepen the courses they read on ancient history. It aims to make it easier for teachers to select texts and visual examples for use in classroom and extracurricular activities. When compiling it, it was decided to confine ourselves to documents reflecting only the socio-economic and political history of the countries and peoples of the ancient world. The involvement of cultural and historical monuments would compel, given the relatively limited volume of the anthology, to significantly reduce some texts and completely abandon the inclusion of others, even very valuable ones. Therefore, sources on the history of culture are supposed to be included in a special collection, which the compilers hope to publish soon. Literary works were involved only to the extent that they satisfied the principle just indicated. A significant number of documents involved appear for the first time in Russian. Many texts have been translated again, the rest are mostly checked against the originals. Before 1 Stalin, Questions of Leninism, 2 Tamzhe, p. 432. ed. 11th, p. 412. The translators set the task not only to convey the content of the monument as accurately as possible, but also to reproduce, as far as possible, its style and language features in order to give a sense of the uniqueness of the era and each people, and it goes without saying that they tried to do this without violating the structure of the Russian language (but in other cases deliberately resorting to archaisms). As for proper names and geographical names, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the generally accepted transcription was left. Particular attention in all three volumes is paid to monuments that help link the history of the ancient world with the historical past of our homeland (Urartu, the Scythians and Cimmerians, Central Asia, the Bosporan Kingdom, the Caucasus in the Greco-Roman era). The placement of documents is based on geographical and chronological principles. New sections introduced in accordance with the programs high school and historical faculties of higher educational institutions: ancient historiography, the Cretan-Mycenaean society, the Northern Black Sea region from the 10th century. BC e. according to the IV century. n. e. Expanded introductory articles to documents. They contain basic information and give them a brief assessment and characteristics. Additions and clarifications to difficult and incomprehensible places the reader will find in the comments and notes placed after each text. All sections are accompanied by short methodological instructions intended for secondary school teachers. They are arranged in the order corresponding to the presentation of the school textbook. However, the reader cannot replace the textbook. It only supplements the material contained in it and enables the teacher and student, with the help of the documents contained in it, to deepen their knowledge of ancient history. Acad. V. V. Struve. FROM THE COMPILERS OF THE FIRST VOLUME The first volume of the reader includes documents on the socio-economic history of the countries of the Ancient East, namely: Egypt, Mesopotamia, Syria, Phoenicia, Asia Minor, Urartu, Iran, India and China. It contains a large number of texts that appear for the first time in Russian translation. For example, documents on the history of the Hittites and China are almost entirely specially translated for this edition. Monuments on the history of culture are involved only insofar as they reflect the facts of political and social history. The sections "India" and "China" are presented more fully than in previous editions, because the lack of sources on the history of these countries available to the general reader is especially noticeable. Chronological dates, especially in the history of Mesopotamia, are given in accordance with the discoveries recent years , forced to revise and correct the chronology of the III and II millennia BC. e. The Reader is intended for seminars for students of historical faculties of universities and teachers of history in secondary schools. The methodological introductions that precede individual chapters of the reader are intended to make it easier for the teacher to use a number of documents in school teaching. EGYPT AND NUBIL STUDYING THE HISTORY OF EGYPT with documents - papyruses and inscriptions on the walls of temples, tombs, c a m e n n h o n d s h o b e s, etc. side of life and ->that country. When studying the history of Egypt, as well as the history of other countries of the ancient East, in the center of attention of the teacher should be, first of all, the question of o c i a l n o - eco n o m i c h o u s s o u n and - these countries. The position of the working masses - the life of slaves, communal workers, urban christians artisans, exploitation of their n a r a n y au thority, secular and chr amoz o y z n a gy o, the facts of class struggle and resistance to oppression and yu - all these moments should be as bright and lively as possible set out in the lessons . Unfortunately, at the same time, a huge number of religious creations texts (in particular, those of the deceased) were preserved, the number of sources according to S o c p a l p o - "- about ko and o m p h c e and p o l itic h i s h o r a is not large.Therefore, in order to restore some of the historical The events and characteristics of the position of the exiloathyrus masses often have to be addressed to C u m a n d s o f r o u n t i n t a t o o o n o o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o n o o n o o o n o o o o o n o o o o o n o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o n o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o r art u s s for illustratio n and most of the lessons on the history of Egypt. a n s, you should refer to the excerpt from the essay in greek o graph Strabona (L ° 1). The teacher must retell it in his own words and at the same time show r e Nile current, Delta, Red sea (Arabian gulf) , M e r i d o v o oz ero. A s k e r students why the population of E g yp t was co m e d e n t o n almost exclusively on the shores of the Nile, why was it not processed o f lands lying far from the river, and to make it easier to answer take them into account the terrain and high mountain chains, around the fringe of the n i l s and n. When speaking about the fertility of Egypt, one should always pay attention to and unequal distribution of land. It is especially necessary to emphasize the mighty priests, o f the best lands, and to explain this, read s ta tistiche s and data from Ramses I V (No. 29), where they are mentioned not only the size of the temple estates, but also the number of workers employed in them, but also The same is due to the contributions of temple subjects who do not have their own land and are completely dependent on arbitrary priests. In addition to the priesthood, the land was received from the pharaoh and also by the military leaders. An indication of this is in the autobiography of the head of the rowers Yahms sa (L i 6). In order to clarify the organization of the Egyptian despotism and the role of the bureaucratic apparatus, we recommend referring to the life of the Egyptian we can Una (No. 6) and Khusfhora (No. 7). Some parts of them should be read in class and explained, for example, the episode with the suspension of four chiefs (from Una's inscription), excellent character exploring court intrigues, or a poetic description of a campaign against the Bedouins, in which Una boasts of beating and plundering the Asian areas. Particular attention should be paid to the mention of the prisoners and the question should be raised by the intermediaries: why did the Egyptians need these prisoners? We must lead them to the idea that wars of conquest were inevitable for a slave-owning country that needed a free labor force . It is worth mentioning the main reward Una received from Pharaoh - a stone coffin, and explain that, from the point of view of the then Egyptians, such a gift was a mockery, because it was customary for noble and wealthy people to prepare for themselves everything necessary for a magnificent holiday long before death o r e benija. From the Huefhor inscription, one should read the list of wealth plundered in Nubia, and show the place on the map about the position of this country. Then it is necessary to raise the question: what did Pharaoh spend on the huge funds collected from the Egyptians themselves and pumped out from neighboring countries? - and instead of an answer, read out a description of the construction of the pyramid (Lg ° 5). Inviting the students to calculate for themselves how much money Cheops needed to build the building, the teacher concludes that how much damage was done to the economy of Egypt by the needlessly wasted labor force (you can ask students to calculate the approximate p yramid builder days for 30 years) . Then it is necessary to move to the position of the masses, at the expense of which Pharaoh, his nobles and officials lived. It is obligatory to cite colorful characteristics of the actors from the “Teachings of Akhtoy, the son of Duau” (especially the description of the work of a forced weaver, locked in a mask Terskaya (No. 11), as well as a scene from the story with the “eloquent peasant” (La 12), which describes the robbery and beating The plight of the poor and the complete lack of rights of the slaves led to a major uprising in 17C0 B.C. In order to visually depict this rebellion, it is advisable to read to the class excerpts from the "Sayings of I P uver" (No. 13). At the same time, it is necessary to explain who was Ipuvsr, and warn the students that it is necessary to be critical of its production. poetic, and it does not give a systematic and consistent presentation of events; attention should be paid to the location of the stanzas built according to a certain pattern, the repetition of the same exclamations, poetic oppositions, for example: “Look, the one that did not have his own property , became the owner of wealth; the owners of wealth have become have-nots.” Secondly, it is especially important to emphasize the bias of the author. It is best if the students themselves draw this conclusion. To do this, you need to skillfully put &eprosy. How does Yi luwep feel about the uprising he describes? Sochu, does he stand up for the rebels? In choosing the appropriate passages, it is necessary to make the students understand that AND uwsr, any attempt on private property was a crime and considered the insurrection as the result of the moral depravity of people (his complaints about the cruelty of people and their hearts, lack of brotherly love and friendship). It is necessary then to explain to the students that at all times the zkeploatayurs in fear of popular movements and called on the oppressed to mercy and humanity, and emphasize l in the name of all these appeals. When the class background of the "Saying of Ipuver" becomes clear, you can call one of the students, instruct him to read stanza by stanza "and establish what we can believe, which is a clear exaggeration f for example, the phrase "The Nile bleeds blood"), where one feels a distortion of actual events or omission. It is necessary to establish the social composition of the who became (the poor and the poor man, the one who did not have a team of bulls, that is, he had to harness himself to a plow or work the field with a hoe; a slave who was forced to water the field ; it must be clarified that this was the hardest work). an uprising was sent (couriers and princes, officials, well-to-do artisans and, for example, goldsmiths, etc.). fighting techniques (refusal to pay taxes, then open rebellion, beating of exploiters, destruction of documents in state institutions I; It is necessary to explain that on the basis of these documents the officials collected arrears, and show the picture in the textbook “Bringing to account the villagers who did not pay the tax”). It is very important to show students that religion always serves as a support for the ruling class, and this is especially manifested during broad national days. in and w en i j. And I was sure of the higiozen (it is necessary to read out those places where this is especially strongly felt). He is waiting for salvation from God a Ra. He is especially upset by the indifference of people to religion, the impoverishment of temples, the inability to fulfill all the prescriptions of the cult . It is necessary to provide a connection between the state power and the priesthood in Egypt and explain that the fall of the authority of Pharaoh (give a description of the assault DEORTS) should have caused a weakening of religious beliefs, a doubt in the entire existence of the gods (and the pharaoh himself was considered a god, the son of R A) . The question about the results of the uprising must be answered by the students themselves, of course, with the help of the teacher, by reading out those passages that speak of the oppressed, who themselves become workers. Owners and poor people who seize wealth, transferring private property from one day to another Others, that no attempts were made to abolish private property and slavery. The student must understand that the uprising was spontaneous and did not lead to the reorganization of society on new principles, but its destructive force played on a positive role, shaking the foundations of the working-class regime, although the rebels themselves did not realize this. In connection with social upheavals, it is also necessary to study foreign policy. Our Hyksos invasion of Egypt was a success to a large extent as a result of the uprising of the poor and slaves, weakening the country. In describing this invasion and the ensuing struggle, the teacher may use excerpts from AAanephon (No. he and Kamosa (No. 15) and the ograf and y o u s o o u o u t h m o s s (JVg 16), paraphrasing them in your own words. It is necessary to draw the attention of the disciples to the division of Egypt. The Hyksos are established in the Delta, and the south is soon gaining independence. To oust the Hyksos, the river fleet is used, and combined land and water battles take place (No. 16). Hyksos who are captured are converted into slavery (a number of examples in No. 16). Next, you should move on to the aggressive policy of the pharaohs in the New Kingdom. It is necessary to introduce students to different types threaders characterizing their foreign policy; with the annals of the pharaohs (J4 ^ ]6): having a strictly official character, systematically setting out the course of hostilities, and with a fairy tale, the plot of which Serves as a real event, the description of which is embellished with poetic fiction (No. 20). All the time it is necessary to focus the attention of students on the question of the causes of wars, their purpose and significance, to point out that the Egyptian annals and ->: h do not think to hide the predatory nature of the * F a r a onov. It is important to emphasize that every slave-owning society needs new slaves and this does not fugitive aggressive foreign policy. It is necessary to clearly and visibly find out who benefited from such a policy. The ordinary peasant and craftsman, enlisted in the army and shedding blood for the glory of the pharaoh, did not gain anything from the victorious expeditions to Asia and Nubia. This is clearly seen from school teachings (No. 30), which it is desirable to read out in the class in its entirety, and at the same time to recall that the vast majority of military booty fell into the hands of the priests. va, military commander "and some (examples from No. 16), senior officials. It should be shown on the map the arena of military operations, outline the boundaries of the Hittite kingdom, which became the main enemy of Egypt in the XV - XIII centuries, touch upon the issues of military equipment, using illustrations from a textbook or atlas (chariot battle, assault on a fortress), as well as individual expressions from the annals of Thutmose III, x characterizing methods of waging war (for example, the siege of Megildo). wars are ready to come to an agreement when they are threatened by internal enemies - the enslaved peoples. with the Hittite king Khagtushil (No. 2 7) It is expedient to read from it the place where it is said about mutual assistance in suppressing uprisings . Yesterday's enemies become friends and when it turns out to be profitable, and by joint efforts they suppress their subjects. It is very important to stop at the organization of the state apparatus in Egypt. Abundant material for this is given by prescriptions from the top official (No. 2 1). In this document, the centralization of the Egyptian state is very embossed. All the threads of government and judgment converge in the hands of one official, whom the pharaoh trusts. The main tasks of the state apparatus are to rob their own people (note references on the collection of taxes) and the organization of the irrigation system (monitoring the health of canals and dams, etc.) in addition to the third function, which was introduced to the students in the previous documents (robbery of the factory ev anna y x stran). To characterize foreign trade, it is necessary to draw on the description of the expedition of Hatshepsut to a distant Punt (now Somalia) and list those lights that were brought from this country to Egypt, drawing attention to the fact that they were almost exclusively luxury items needed for the queen, the priest about in and nobility (No. 17). In conclusion, we must show the disciples that the power of Egypt and its prosperity was relatively short-lived and fragile. The end of the domination of the Egyptian pharaohs in Phoenicia and Palestine cannot be traced from The Journey of Unuamon. This document is especially interesting for us because it was discovered by a Russian scientist (V.S. Golenishchev) and is kept in Moscow ( in the State Museum of Fine Arts). It is necessary to retell the detailed content of it in your own words and and compare the situation in Western Asia in the 11th century (the time of compiling this document) with the situation at the beginning of the 15th century. (time T at m about sa). It is necessary to invite the students themselves to answer the question why the power of the Egyptian state turned out to be so short-lived. The collapse of the large-scale slave-owning dorzhchva was completed with the help of external enemies (Libyans, Nubians, Assyrians, Persians). As an example, one can cite excerpts from a colorful and detailed inscription of Piankh, the Nubian king, who conquered Egypt in the 8th century. d o n. e. (No. 3 4). It is especially necessary to emphasize the fragmentation of Egypt during this period, the presence in each city of its own independent king (in the Piankhi inscription this is about trazhenno with full distinctness). The disintegration of Egypt into separate small states and the impoverishment of the masses of the people weakened the country and made its victims o y alien conquerors. No. 1. THE NILE AND ITS FLOODS (Strabo, Geography, XVII, 1, 3-5.) Strabo is one of the most prominent geographers of antiquity. Born in the city of Amasya (Asia Minor) in the 60s. d o n. e., died er in 24 AD. e. In 24 BC. e. in the retinue of the Roman governor of Egypt, Elius Galla, visited this country and traveled from Alexander and to the border of Nub and. In addition, according to him, he visited the lands from Armenia to Sardinia and from the Black Sea to Ethiopia. About countries that Strabo did not visit, he borrowed information from other writers. 0 including one of the eminent scientists of the Alexandrian school, Eratosthenes from Cyrene (2 75 - 195 BC) , the author of many works on mathematics, philosophy, chronology, etc. The most famous work of the latter is "Geography" in 3 books in which he laid the foundation for the study of this science. It was often used by Strabo. Strab himself wrote a work, also under the title "Geography", in 17 books, where he described all the known antiquities of the country. This essay is an extremely important historical source, since it contains a huge amount of factual material. ...3. It is necessary, however, to say more, and first about those pertaining to Egypt, in order to move from the more familiar to the more remote. And this country [Egypt], and the country adjacent to it, and the country of the Ethiopians located behind it, receive from the Nile some common properties, for during the rise of the water the river gives them water, making habitable only that part of them that is covered [with water] during floods, lying above and further from the current, leaving on both sides uninhabited and deserted due to lack of water. However, the Nile does not flow through all of Ethiopia, and it does not flow alone, and not in a straight line, and through a land not well populated: in Egypt, it flows alone through the whole country and in a straight line, starting from a small threshold beyond Siena 1 and Elephantine 2, which are the border between Egypt and Ethiopia, before flowing into the sea. Indeed, the Ethiopians live for the most part as nomads3, poor because of the poverty of the country and the immoderation of the climate and remoteness from us; the Egyptians, on the other hand, fell to the opposite, for they live from the very beginning a state and cultural life and settled in well-known places, so that their orders are known. The Egyptians are of good repute, for they are thought to enjoy worthily the welfare of their country by dividing it wisely and caring for it. Having chosen a king, they divided the mass of the people and called some warriors, others farmers, and still others priests; sacred affairs are subject to the care of the priests, and human affairs are to the care of the rest; of the latter, some were engaged in military affairs, while others were engaged in peaceful affairs - agriculture and crafts, and it was from them that taxes came to the king. The priests were engaged in philosophy and astronomy and were royal interlocutors. The country was originally divided into nomes 4, and the Thebaid5 had ten nomes, ten - the region in the Delta and sixteen - the region lying in the middle; some say that there were as many nomes as there are courts in the labyrinth 6, and these latter were [not] less than thirty [six]; the nomes again had other divisions, for the majority was divided into toparchies, which in turn were divided into parts, while the smallest divisions were individual fields. This exact and petty division was necessary because of the constant confusion of the boundaries that the Nile produces during floods, reducing and increasing individual parts, changing their forms and destroying all kinds of signs by which the alien differs from its own; therefore new measurements were required. Geometry is said to have originated from here, just as the art of counting and arithmetic arose among the Phoenicians through trade. Just as the entire population and all the people in each nome were divided into three parts, so the country was divided into three equal parts. The work on the river is as varied as it is necessary to conquer nature with constant labor. By nature itself, the country bears many fruits, and thanks to irrigation, even more; naturally. a greater rise of the river irrigates more land, but diligence sometimes made up for what nature denied, so that even with a smaller rise of water, as much land is irrigated as with a greater one thanks to canals and dams; so, in the time before Petronius,7 the greatest fertility and rise of water was when the Nile rose fourteen cubits, when famine came eight [cubits]; when he [Petronius] ruled the country, and the height of the Nile only reached twelve cubits, the fertility was greatest, and even when one day the height of the water reached only eight [cubits], no one felt hungry. 4. The Nile flows from the borders of Ethiopia in a straight line north to the so-called Delta area. Then it, dividing at the upper reaches, as Plato says8, turns this area, as it were, into the top of a triangle. The sides of the triangle, on the other hand, form arms dividing in two directions, descending to the sea, on the right side towards Peluoium9, on the left towards Canopus 10 and the neighboring so-called Heraclea11, while the base is the coast between Pelusium and Herakleion. Thus, by the course of two branches and the sea, an island is cut off, which, by the similarity of its form, is called the Delta; however, the place at the summit is also called by the same name, because it is the beginning of the figure mentioned, and the village located there is also called the Delta. So, the Nile [has] these two mouths, of which one is called Pelusian, the other is Canopic and Heracleian; between them [there are] five other mouths worthy of mention, smaller ones still more, for many branches, branching from the very beginning over the whole island, formed many streams and islands, so that the whole island became navigable, since channels were dug in a large number which are so easily navigated that some use clay boats. So the whole island is about three thousand stadia in circumference, and is called, together with the opposite river area of ​​the Delta, the Lower Country; it is all hidden during the floods of the Nile and, with the exception of dwellings, becomes the sea; the latter are erected on natural hills or embankments, so that significant towns and villages have the appearance of islands from a distance. For more than forty days the water stays high in the summer until it begins to subside a little; the same is the case with the rise [of water]; within sixty days the plain is finally exposed and dried up; the faster the drying occurs, the sooner plowing and sowing takes place, and most likely where it is hotter. The land above the Delta is irrigated in the same way; moreover, the river flows for about four thousand stades in a straight direction along the same channel, except if somewhere an island comes across, of which the most significant is that which contains the Heracleian nome, or if somewhere the course of a river is diverted by a canal into some large lake or area which it can irrigate, as, [for example], is the case with the [canal] irrigating Arsinoiskin and Lake Merida 12, and [channels] pouring into Mareotis 13 In short, the irrigated region is only that part of Egypt, which lies on both sides of the Nile, starting from the borders of Ethiopia and reaching the top of the Delta, and the continuous extension of the inhabited land only in some places reaches three hundred stades. Thus, except for significant deviations, the river looks like an elongated belt. This form is given to the river valley of which I speak, and to the whole country, by the mountains descending on both sides from the environs of Syene to the Egyptian Sea 14: how far they stretch and how far apart they are from each other, by how much the river itself narrows and overflows. and in various ways changes the shape of the inhabited land; beyond the mountains the country is for the most part uninhabited. 5. Ancient writers, mostly on the basis of conjectures (who lived later as eyewitnesses), asserted that the Nile is flooded from the summer rains that fall in upper Ethiopia and mainly in the extreme mountains, and that as the rains stop, the flood also gradually stops. This is obvious mainly to those who sail along the Arabian Gulf to the quinpamon-bearing country 15, and to those who are sent to hunt elephants ... So, the ancients called Egypt only that part of the country that is inhabited and irrigated by the Nile - beginning from the environs of Siena to the sea; later writers, up to our time, added to the East almost the entire space between the Arabian Gulf 16 and the Nile, from the western regions the country to the Avases and on the coast from the Kanop mouth to Katabatma 17 and the region of the Cyrenians 18. Perev. O. V. K u d r I in c: in a. 1 Siena - the Greek name of the Egyptian fortress and Suanu, located on the first threshold - modern ss ya n. 2 Elefantina - "an island on the Nile near the first threshold against Siena and the city located on it. Egyptian name - "Abu" - "elephant", because through this city the elephant bone was brought to Egypt from Central Africa. 3 Nomads - pastoral nomadic tribes. 4 Nom - the Greek name of the regions into which Egypt was divided. According to Egyptian documents, they were drunk 42. about the family of Thebes. The labyrinth was called by the Greeks the constructed pharaoh of the XII dynasty Amen emhet III (1 8 4 9 - 1801 BC). e.) a temple in the Fayum moasis, located west of the Nile Valley. 7 Petronius - "the Roman governor of Egypt yri and emperor Octavian Augustus in the 20s BC. 8 Plato - a famous Greek philosopher - idealist (4 2 7 - 3 4 7 BC) 9 Pelusium - fortified city in the north -Eastern border of Egypt 10 Canopy - city at the mouth of the western branch of the Nile Canopa 12 Nome and lakes located in the Fayum lake 13 Mareotida - lakes in Lower Egypt, near Al oxandria, formed by the Kanops branch of the Nile 14 Egyptian Sea - Mediterranean Sea 15 Kinna mononosnosnoe country - the south-western extremity of the Arabian Peninsula, modern Yemen. 16 Arabian Gulf - Red Sea. 17 Katabatma is a fortress and a port on the Mediterranean Sea. The westernmost point of Egypt in the Ptolemic era. Modern - A to ab ah -A with so lon. 18 Inhabitants of the Greek colony of Cyrene on the northern coast of Africa. No. 2. THE NATURE OF NUBIA (Strabo, Geography, 1, 2, 25.) ... Ethiopia lies in a straight line directly behind Egypt, is in a similar relationship to the Nile, but has a different nature of the terrain. For it is both narrow and long, and subject to floods. What is outside the flooded [part] is both deserted and waterless and capable of insignificant settlement both in the direction of the east and in the direction of the west. P erev. O.V. No. 3. FROM THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ANNALES e” (accompanied by the museum in Palermo, Italy, where it is kept). The inscription is very difficult to understand due to the archaic nature of the language and writing and the fragmentation of the text. It is carved on both sides of a diorite slab, from which an insignificant fragment of 43.5 cmU \ X 25 cm has survived. Starting from the second row, each rectangle into which the lines are divided, with Contains a brief record of the major events that took place at that time. In the space between the lines, and at the top of each row, stood the name of the king. On the front side of the stele were inscribed the names of the pre-dynastic kings (upper row) and I-III dynasties. In all the rest, ending with the V dynasty, were on the reverse side. As has already been pointed out, the text is very fragmentary, and only a few passages lend themselves to a coherent translation. Below are excerpts that list the events of individual years during the reign of Snofru (the last pharaoh of the III din st and i), Shepseskafa (the last pharaoh of the IV dynasty) and Uyerkaf (the first pharaoh Dynasty V), who ruled in the first quarter of the III millennium: the construction of ships and temples, donations to temples, the establishment of holidays, hiking, etc. Translated from: H. Sch afer, Ein B r uc hstu ck a lt a g y p t is c h e r A n n alen . A b h a n d lu n g e n der K o n ig lic h e n p r e u s s i s c h e n A k a d e m ie der Wi s s e n sc h aften . R^erlin, 1902. The beginning of the break: the list of events of 10 or P years is missing. Year X +1. [Birth] of both children of the king of Lower Egypt1. Year X+2. A building of wood-measures of a ship of one hundred cubits “Adoration of both lands” and 60 sixteen [cubits?] royal baroques. Devastation of the country of Nehsi 2. Delivery of 7,000 prisoners, men and women, 200,000 heads of large and small livestock 3. Construction of the wall of the Southern and Northern countries [under the name]: fortresses (?) Snefru. Delivery of 40 ships with (?) Cedar trees. Rise of the Nile: 2 cubits, 2 fingers. Construction of 35 fortresses ........... Construction of the ship "Adoration of both lands" from cedar wood and two ships of a hundred cubits from wood - meter. Reckoning 7th time 4. Rise of the Nile: 5 cubits, 1 palm, 1 palei. Year X+4. The construction of [buildings?] "High is the crown of Sneferu at the South Gate" and "High is the crown of Sneferu at the North Gate." Production of doors for the royal palace from cedar wood. Reckoning 8th time 5. Rise of the Nile: 2 cubits, 2 palms, 23/4 fingers. (Further destroyed.) Pharaoh Year 1. Shepseskaf. Appearance of the king of Upper Egypt. Appearance of the king of Lower Egypt. Connection of both lands. Bypass [around] the walls. Holiday - Seshed 6. Birth of both Upuats7. The king worships the gods who united both lands... Choosing a place for the pyramid "Sky of Shepseskaf 8". (Further, except for an indication of the height of the rise of the Nile, only the lower parts of two columns of the text have been preserved.) Pharaoh Userkaf. Year X +2. The king of Upper and Lower Egypt Userkaf donated (literally: made) as his monument for: Spirits of Heliopolis 9 20 sacrificial rations10 every... holiday, arable land 36 cut (arur) p... in... the land of Userkaf. Gods (sanctuaries of the sun god...) Sep-ra of arable land 24 cut... 2 bulls and 2 geese daily. [To God] Ra - arable land 44 is cut in the fields of the Sever (goddess) Hathor - arable land 44 is cut in the mountains of the North. To the gods of the "House of Horus" Jeba Herut (?) of arable land 54 cut. Construction of his chapel (Mountain) in the temple of Buto in the Xois nome 12. Sen 15 - arable land 2 cut. building his temple. [Goddess] Nekhsbt 14 in the "Sacred Palace" Yug1510 sacrificial rations daily. 1 in the Gods of the "Sacred Palace" Nega 48 sacrificial rations daily. 3-n times the reckoning of livestock. Rise of the Nile: 4 cubits, 2!/2 fingers. Transl. / / . S. To sch Nelso on. 1 These deities are mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. This is obviously a religious holiday. 2 In the era of the Old Kingdom, “Nehsi” meant the tribes that lived near the southern border of Egypt, in contrast to "Aa m u" - a s and a there. Subsequently, non-Xsin were generally referred to as residents of southern countries, including Negroes. 3 Figures may be exaggerated. A IMPLIED PROPERTIES FOR TAX Establishment. These calculations were usually made every two years. From this we can conclude that there is a lack of records relating to the first 10-11 years of the reign of Snofru 5 First mentioned n e on calculus and property for two years in a row. 6 Literally: bandages. 7 Literally: openers of the way. According to one of the legends, they "victoriously captured and deprived of the lands", being the commanders of Osiris in his struggle with his brother - rival Seth. Depicted in the form of a wolf. 8 T o - there is a place where the deceased king will stay together with the gods. From this it follows that the pharaoh immediately after accession to the throne began to build his own tomb. 9 City in the southern part of the Delta, near Memphis. One of the ancient cities of Egypt. The center of the cult of the sun god Ra. 10 Literally: bread, beer, cookies. 11 Unit of area 2735 sq. m. meters. 12 One of the ancient cities of Egypt, the center of the cult of the god Horus. He was in the 6th nome of Lower Egypt. 13 Possibly the sanctuary of Anubis, the god of the dead. The patron goddess of Upper Egypt, revered in the form of a kite. 15 The patron goddess of Lower Egypt, revered in the form of a snake. 16 The name of one of the two sanctuaries of Lower Egypt, located in Buto. No. 4. FROM METHEN'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY Methen's autobiography is important not only as one of the first documents of its kind, which received wide circulation an ance by the end of the Old Kingdom, but also as a historical source, preserved from the first centuries of the existence of the Egyptian state, so meager written monuments. Metena lived at the end of the reign of the III dynasty - the beginning of the reign of the IV dynasty (c. 2900 BC). In the hieroglyphic inscription carved in his tomb, he told about his service career and lists the property accumulated during his lifetime , which makes it possible to clarify the structures of the state apparatus and to determine some features of the economic and social structure of the time. It is characteristic that the main source of the well-being of this nobleman, who left the service class, was the pharaoh's compliments, a gift to his large estates. Translated from the publication: K. S eth e , U rk u n d en d es Leipzig, 1903. U rk u n d en dcs a g y p ti s c h e n A ile r t u m s . Abt. IV. INHERITANCE RECEIVED BY Alten Reiches, METEN The property of his father Inpuemankh, a judge and a scribe, was given to him: there was (neither) grain, (nor) any household property, but there were people and small livestock. [CARRIER RA METENA.] He was made the first scribe of the food warehouses (?), the head of the property of the food warehouses (?), he was made ... (he) was the nomarch of the Ox nome 1 after (was) the judge of the Ox nome. .. he was made the head of all the royal linen, he was made the ruler of the settlements of Perked 2 ... he was made the nomarch of Dep 3, the ruler of the great fortification of Perm 2 and Persepus, the nomarch of Sais 4 ... PROPERTY ACCUMULATED METENUS Was acquired by him. (i.e. Methen). 200 arura fields with numerous royal people: a daily sacrifice (for) the sanctuary of 100 loaves from the temple of the Soul, the royal mother Enmaathap;. a house 200 cubits long and 200 cubits wide, built, equipped: beautiful trees were planted, a huge pond was made in it, fig trees and vines were planted. It is written here, as on a royal document; their names are here, as on the royal document. Trees have been planted and the vineyard is huge, they make a lot of wine there. He made a vineyard of two thousand aruras within the walls; trees have been planted. Pz ev. and M. Lur'e. 1st Nome of Lower Egypt (Koissky). 2 Name of the locality. 3 Later became part of the b-th nome of Lower Egypt; during these times, a was an independent nome 4 of the 5th nome of Lower Egypt (Saissky). N L1> 5. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PYRAMIDS (I "rodot. History, II, 124-125.) Herodorod c. 4H4 BC in Galicar Nassa (Asia Minor), d. c. 425 B.C. Odot made a number of distant journeys: he visited Eishet (c. 445 BC), where he went up the Nile to El Fantine, was in Tyre, Syria, Palestine, Northern Arabia, in Babylon, apparently in the vicinity of Susa, and perhaps in Ecbatana; traveled along the northern coasts of Pontus and Colchis , Thrace, Macedonia, etc. "History" of Herodotus consists of 9 books, named after nine muses (the division was introduced later), and includes a description of almost everything known then to the ancient world. guides, Greek merchants, who gave us not always correct explanations. The Egyptian and Babylonian priests, who were the monopoly holders of the knowledge of that time, avoided communication with the "barbarians", which for them were foreigners. Therefore, Herod had to use stories, folk and legends, walking and anokdots, etc. This explains numerous false information, in particular the complete distortion of the historical perspective, which is characteristic of his work. At the same time, he conscientiously described everything personally seen by him, constantly referring to the monuments he examined, and quotes I have some inscriptions. The "History" also preserved excerpts from the writings of other travelers and historians that have not come down to us. Thus, with a critical attitude to the work of Herod, with a careful comparison of it with genuine documents and archeological and monuments , from it you can extract extremely valuable information, which allows you to rightly consider "History" as an indispensable and most important source for history countries of the Ancient East. The following passage is the first description of the pyramids. At the same time, he confirms that even in the 5th c. d o n. e., despite the two and a half thousand years that have elapsed since the reign of Cheops, memories of the oppression and disasters in which this pharaoh continued to be stored in the people's memory defeated Egypt, forcing the whole country to work on the construction of its tomb. The description of the process of constructing the pyramid, as shown by the latest research, is close to reality. 124. It was said that the king of Rhampsinites 1 in Egypt had good laws in all respects, and Egypt prospered greatly; Cheops, who reigned over them [the Egyptians], plunged the country into all possible troubles, for he first locked up all the sanctuaries and forbade them [the Egyptians] to offer sacrifices, and then forced all the Egyptians to work for him. Some were ordered, as they say, from the quarries in the Arabian mountains to carry stones to the Nile; after the stones had been brought across the river in boats, he ordered others to receive them and drag them to the ridge called the Libyan. A hundred thousand people worked continuously every three months. Time passed, as they say, ten years, while the people languished over the construction of the road along which the stones were dragged, the work is only a little easier than the construction of the pyramid, as it seems to me (for its length is five stages2, the width is ten orgies3, the height where it is highest - eight orgies, and it is made of polished stone with images of living beings carved on it); and now it took ten years to build this road and underground rooms in that hill on which the pyramids stand; he [Cheops] made these premises for himself a tomb on the island, drawing a canal from the Nile. The construction of the pyramid itself took, as they say, twenty years; each of its sides has eight pletras 4, moreover, it itself is quadrangular, and the same height; it was made of polished stone, fitted to each other in the best possible way; none of the stones is less than thirty feet 5. 125. The pyramid itself is made as follows: with the help of ledges, which some call battlements, others altars. When it was first made like this, the remaining stones were lifted up by machines made from short pieces of wood; the stone was raised from the ground to the first row of ledges; when the stone fell into place, it was placed on the second car, which stood on the first row of ledges; from here to the second row, the stone was lifted with the help of another machine; for how many rows of ledges there were, so many machines were there, or else there was one and the same machine, easily moved from one row to another when they wanted to lift a stone; so, we talked about both ways, exactly as they say. First, the upper parts of the pyramid were finished, then the parts that carried them, the last ones were finished on its ground and the lowest ones that lie on the ground. In the Egyptian inscription inscribed on the pyramid, it is indicated how much was spent on radishes, onions and garlic for workers; and as I well remember, the translator who read the writings told me that sixteen hundred talents of silver were spent. If this is the case, how much more could have been spent on the iron with which they worked, and food and clothes for the workers? If the said time was spent on these works, then, as I think, a considerable time also passed in breaking stones and dragging them and digging under the ground. Transl. O.V. 1 Ramses IV (on the former death III) - pharaoh of the XX dynasty (1 2 0 4 - 1180 BC). Herodotus erroneously considered Cheops (Egypt. Khuf y) due to insufficient knowledge of the history of Egypt from the pre-s and s period - pharaoh of the IV dynasty (c. 2800 BC) - the successor of R a m ses IV 2 S t a d i y = 184.97 meters. 3 Orgies = 1.85 meters. 4 Pletra = 3 0 8 3 meters. 5 According to modern measurements, the size of the pyramid of Cheops during construction was: the length of the base. . . . 233 meters height.........................146.5 meters volume....... .................... 2 5 2 1 0 0 0 cu. meters. At present, these sizes have somewhat decreased due to the influence of natural factors and the destruction caused by people over thousands of years. The pyramid was built of yellowish sandstone, quarried in the surroundings, and was lined with white stone, delivered from the quarries of Mokattam and Turra, located on the east bank of the Nile, south of modern Cairo. 6 There were no similar inscriptions on the pyramid. Uninformed guides or interpreters probably considered the lists of victims brought to support the cult of the dead fara ono in and their loved ones, for the lists of products "used up for the maintenance of workers. No. 6. LIFE DESCRIPTION OF THE GREAT UNA Hieroglyphic inscription on a slab found in Abydos in Upper Egypt and now stored her time at the Cairo Museum. The biography gives a diverse picture of the administrative, military and court life and construction activities of the pharaoh at the end of the Ancient ego of the Kingdom (pharaohs of the VI dynasty of Teti, Piopi I and Merenra) . The description of the victorious return of the troops is given in the form of a military song. Best Edition: K S et h e , U rk u n d en d es Alten Reich es, L e ip z ig , 1903, pp. 9 3-110. in the palace, the guardian of Nekhen \ the head of Nekheb2, the only friend [of the pharaoh], honored by Osiris, who is at the head of the dead, Una (says): THE BEGINNING OF SERVICE ACTIVITY [I was a young man], girded with a belt [of maturity] with the majesty of Teti3, and my position was the head of the shna house 4. I was the caretaker of the palace henti and ushe 5. ... the elder of the palace under Majesty Piopi 6. His Majesty elevated me to the rank of friend and caretaker of the priests of the city at his pyramid. APPOINTMENT OF JUDGES When my position was ..., his [majesty appointed me! judge and the mouth of Nekhen 7, for he relied on me more than on any of his other servants. I conducted the interrogation alone with the chief judge - the supreme dignitary in the case of any secret matter ... on behalf of the king, the royal women's house and 6 supreme judicial presences, since his majesty relied on me more than on any other of his dignitaries, more than any other of his nobles, more than any of his servants. THE EQUIPMENT OF THE TOMB OF UNA BY THE PHAROAH I asked the majesty of my master that a limestone coffin be brought to me from the [Memphis quarries] Ra-au8. His Majesty ordered that the [dignitary] treasurer of god9 crossed the [Nile] with a party of workers of the captain of the ship (? ), his assistant (?), to deliver this coffin to me from Ra-au. He (the coffin) arrived with him at the residence on a large cargo ship, along with [his] lid, a tombstone with a niche, ruit I), two gemex 11 and one sats,2. The like has never been done to any (other) servant, since I enjoyed the favor of his majesty, since I was pleasing to his majesty, since his majesty relied on me. APPOINTMENT AS THE CHIEF OF THE PALACE HENTI U-SHE When I was a judge and through the mouth of Nekhen, His Majesty appointed me the only friend and chief of the palace Khentiu-she. I removed 4 chiefs of the palace Khentiu-she, who were there. I acted in such a way that I won the approval of his majesty, organizing the guard, preparing the way for the king and organizing the camp. I did everything in such a way that His Majesty praised me exceedingly for it. PROCESSES AGAINST THE WOMEN OF THE Tsar URETHETES (?) A case was conducted in the royal women's house against the wife of the king Urethetes (?) in secret. His Majesty ordered me to go down (?) to conduct an interrogation alone, and there was not a single chief judge-supreme dignitary, not a single [other] dignitary, except for me alone, since I enjoyed favor and was pleasing to His Majesty and because his majesty relied on me. It was I who kept the record alone with one judge and the mouth of Nekhen, and my position was [only] the head of the palace Khentyu-she. Never before had a man of my position listened to the secret business of the royal women's house, but his majesty ordered me to listen, since I enjoyed the favor of his majesty more than his other dignitary, more than any other of his nobles, more than any other of his servants. PREPARATIONS FOR WAR WITH THE BEDOUINS And His Majesty repulsed the Asian Bedouins. His Majesty took an army of many tens of thousands in all of Upper Egypt, from Elephantine in the south to the Aphroditepolis region in the north, among the Nubians of Irchet, the Nubians of Medja, the Nubians of Ima, the Nubians of Wawat, the Nubians of Kaau, and in the land of the Libyans. YOU ARE GOING ON A CAMPAIGN UNDER UNA His Majesty sent me at the head of this army; local princes, treasurers of the king of Upper Egypt, the only friends of the palace, heads and mayors of Upper and Lower Egypt, friends, chiefs of translators, chiefs of the priests of Upper and Lower Egypt and lower Egyptian villages and villages and the Nubians of these countries. It was I who was in charge of them, and my position was [only] the head of the palace Khentiu-she, in view of ... my position, so that none of them harmed the other, so that none of them took away bread and sandals from traveler, so that none of them took away clothes in any village, so that none of them took away a single goat from a single person. I brought them to the North Island, to the Gate of Ihotep and the district [of Horus] of the just, being in this position ... I was informed of the number (of people) of these detachments - (it) was never reported to any other servant. THE RETURN OF THE VICTORIOUS TROOP This army returned safely, having turned around the country of the Bedouins. This army returned safely, having ruined the country of the Bedouins. This army returned safely, demolishing her fortresses. This army returned safely, cutting down its fig trees and grapes. This army returned safely, having kindled a fire in all of them ... This army returned safely, having killed many tens of thousands of detachments in it. This army returned safely, [capturing] many prisoners in it [detachments]. His Majesty praised me for this exceedingly revolt of the vanquished His Majesty sent me five times to lead [this] army and pacify the country of the Bedouins, every time they rebelled, with the help (?) of these detachments. I acted in such a way that [His] Majesty praised me [for]. TRAVELING BY SEA AND LAND OF THE COUNTRY TO THE COUNTRY OF THE BEDOUINS "GAZELLS IN THE SOUTHERN NOSE", NORTH PALESTINE It was reported that rebels ... among these foreigners on the Gazelle Nose, 3. I crossed over in ships with these detachments and landed on the high spurs of the mountain north of the Bedouin country, and a whole half of this army [went] by land. I came and took them all. All the rebels were killed among them. APPOINTMENT AS THE PRINCIPAL OF UPPER EGYPT When I was a palace attendant16 and a wearer of [Pharaoh's] sandals, the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenra, 17 my master, who may live forever, appointed me local prince and commander of Upper Egypt from Elephantine in the south to the Aphroditepolis region in the north because I enjoyed the favor of his majesty, because I was pleasing to his majesty, because his majesty relied on me. When I was an accountant and a wearer of sandals, his Majesty praised me for my vigilance and for the guard I organized at the campsite, more than any other of his dignitaries, more than any of his nobles, more than any other of his servants. Never before had this position been given to any other servant. I was the ruler of Upper Egypt for his joy, so that no one in him did harm to another. I did all the work; I imposed everything that was due in favor of the residence, here in Upper Egypt, twice, and all the duties that were liable to be imposed in favor of the residence, here in Upper Egypt, twice. I performed the duties of a dignitary exemplary here in Upper Egypt. This has never been done before here in Upper Egypt. I did everything so that his majesty praised me for that. EXPEDITION TO THE QUARRY OF NUBIA AND ELEPHANTINA IN SOUTH GE EGYPTA IBHAT His Majesty sent me to Ibhat18 to deliver the sarcophagus "The Chest of the Living" together with its lid and the precious and luxurious top for the pyramid : "Merepra appears and is merciful," mistress. His Majesty sent me to Elephantine to deliver a granite slab with a niche along with its sats and granite doors and ruit, and to deliver granite doors and sats to the upper chamber of the pyramid "Merenra appears and is merciful," mistress. They sailed with me down the Nile to the pyramid "Merenra is and is merciful" on 6 cargo and 3 transport ships for 8 months (?) and 3 ... during one expedition. Never at any time did they visit Ibhat and Elephantine in one expedition. And whatever was ordered by his majesty, I did everything, according to everything that his majesty commanded about that (?). EXPEDITION TO THE ALABASTER STONES IN CENTRAL EGYPT KHATNUB (His Majesty sent me to Hatnub 19 to deliver a large sacrificial slab of Hatpub alabaster. I lowered this slab for him, broken in Hatnub) in only 17 days 20. I sent it down the Nile in this cargo ship - I built him a cargo ship of acacia 60 cubits long and 30 cubits wide, and the construction took only 17 days - in the 3rd summer month, despite the fact that the water did not cover [more ] shoals. I moored safely at the pyramid "Merepra appears and is merciful." Everything was carried out by me, according to the order given by the majesty of my master. THE SECOND EXPEDITION I K N I C O L S I M P O R O G A M IN THE SOUTH OF E GYPT A AND IN N U B I YU Z O S T O I THE PYRAMID PYRAMID His Majesty sent me to dig 5 canals in Upper Egypt and build 3 freighters and 4 transport ships from the Akania of Uauat. At the same time, the rulers of Irchet and Medja supplied a tree for them. I completed everything in one year. They were launched and loaded to capacity with granite [on the way] to the pyramid "Merenra is and is merciful." I did, further, ... for the palace through all these 5 channels, since the power of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Merenra, who may live forever, is majestic, ... and more impressive than all the gods, since all carried out according to the order given to them. CONCLUSION I was truly a man loved by my father and praised by my mother, ... enjoying the favor of my brothers, a local prince, a good leader of Upper Egypt, honored by Osiris, Una. 1 The oldest residence of the kings of Upper Egypt; was located in the places of the later Hierakonpol. 2 The ancient capital of Upper Egypt, modern El-Kab. It was located opposite Nekhenan on the opposite bank of the Nile. 3 Pharaoh Teti II (Atoti) - the first pharaoh of the VI dynasty (middle of the XXVI century BC) I Possibly, workshops or barns (sk l and d s). d’ Possibly, tenants who sat on the royal lands. 6 Pharaoh Piopi I - the third pharaoh of the VI dynasty. 7 Judicial position. 8 Quarry near Memphis, modern. Turra. 9 Duty of a dignitary. 10 Untranslatable word - some part of the door. II Also some part of the door, possibly sashes or jambs. 12 Parts of the burial slab - niches. 13 The 22nd nome of Upper Egypt, located in the south of modern Cairo. m The indicated places are not subject to exact determination; Most likely, they were located on the eastern border of the Delta, near the Sinai Peninsula. 15 Probably, the edge of the Karmel mountain range is in true Palestine. ,g> Court position. The meaning of this title is unknown. 17 Farahon of the 6th Dynasty Merenra I - father of Piopi II - ruled c. end of the 26th century d o n. e. 18 Location not established. Ibhat in Nubia was above the second threshold. In the era of the Ancient Kingdom of the Egyptians, they did not penetrate farther than Northern Nubia. 19 Stone quarries where alabaster was mined in the mountains near the capital of Akhenaten - Akhetaton (modern T ell - el - Amarn a - northern M a n f a l u t a) . 20 I mean, from the mountains, where the quarries were, to the bank of the Nile. No. 7. AUTOBIOPHY OF KHUEFKHOR Biography of Elefantinsk o nomarch Khuefkhor, a contemporary of the pharaohs of the 6th dynasty Merenr I and Piopi II (c. 2500 BC), inscribed on his tomb, carved in the rocks near the first threshold, is one of the most important texts of the end of the Ancient Kingdom. The tomb was opened in 1891. Huefkhor tells of three journeys he made on the orders of the pharaohs to Nubiya, and concludes A copy of the letter sent to him on behalf of Pepi II, which is one of the oldest Egyptian documents of its kind known to us. The biography of Huefhoran not only characterizes the foreign policy of Egypt and the south and clarifies the list of products delivered from there, but significantly add and expand information about N ubi and i s