Arabic medieval culture. Natural scientific achievements of medieval Arab culture What was the flourishing of Arab culture

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION

State educational institution of higher professional education

"ULYANOVSK STATE POLYTECHNICAL UNIVERSITY"

Specialty "PUBLIC RELATIONS"

Department of Cultural Studies

on the course "CULTUROLOGY"

ARAB CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES AS A MIDDLE CULTURE

Is done by a student:

Golovacheva A.V.

Groups_sod-21

Checked by teacher:

Petukhova T.V.

Ulyanovsk 2010

Introduction

2. History

4. Geography

5. Philosophy

6. Historical science

7. Literature

8. Visual arts

9. Architecture

10. Music

Bibliography

Introduction

Arab culture, medieval culture that developed in the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-10th centuries. in the process of cultural interaction between the Arabs and the peoples of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and Southwestern Europe conquered by them. In the scientific literature, the term "Arab culture" is used both to refer to the culture of the Arab peoples themselves, and as applied to the medieval Arabic-speaking culture of a number of other peoples that were part of the Caliphate. In the latter sense, the concept of "Arab culture" is sometimes identified with the concept of "Muslim culture" (ie, the culture of Muslim peoples) and its use is conditional.

Religion had a certain influence on the development of the medieval art of the Arabs, as well as other peoples who professed Islam. The spread of Islam marked the rejection of the old, pre-feudal religions, the establishment of monotheism - faith in a single god. The Muslim idea of the world as a single whole created by God was important for the formation of the aesthetic idea, characteristic of the medieval era, of a certain, albeit abstract, harmony of the universe. At the same time, Islam, like all medieval religions, ideologically justified and consolidated feudal exploitation. The dogmas of the Koran obscured the consciousness of a person, hindered his development. However, the views of the people of the medieval East, including their artistic views, cannot be reduced to religious ideas. In the worldview of a man of the Middle Ages, idealistic and materialistic tendencies, scholasticism and the desire for knowledge of reality were contradictory combined. One of the greatest scientists and philosophers of the medieval East, Abu Ali ibn Sina (Avicenna), recognized the divine origin of the universe and at the same time argued that scientific and philosophical knowledge exists independently of religious faith. Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd (Averroes), Firdowsi, Navoi and many other outstanding thinkers of the medieval East, in whose works and poetic works the progressive features of the era were especially clearly manifested, asserted the strength of the human will and mind, the value and wealth of the real world, although, as a rule, , did not speak openly from atheistic positions. When it comes to the influence of Islam on the visual arts, they usually point to the prohibition of depicting living beings under fear of religious punishment. Undoubtedly, from the very beginning, the teachings of Islam contained an iconoclastic trend associated with overcoming polytheism. In the Koran, idols (most likely, sculptural images of ancient tribal gods) are called "an obsession of Satan." Religious tradition strongly rejected the possibility of depicting a deity. Mosques and other religious buildings were also not allowed to place images of people. The Koran and other theological books were decorated only with ornaments. However, initially in Islam there was no prohibition to portray living beings, formulated as a religious law. Only later, probably in the 9th-10th centuries, was the iconoclastic tendency of Islam used to ban a certain category of images under pain of punishment in the afterlife. “Misfortune to him,” we read in the comments to the Koran, “who will depict a living being! On the day of the last judgment, the faces that the artist has presented will leave the picture and come to him demanding to give them a soul. Then this person, unable to give his creatures a soul, will be burned in an eternal flame "; "Beware of portraying the Lord or a person, but write only trees, flowers and inanimate objects." History has shown that these restrictions, which left an imprint on the development of certain types of art , were not important in all Muslim countries and were strictly carried out only during periods of particular intensification of the ideological reaction.However, the explanation of the main features of the medieval art of the Arab peoples must be sought not in religion, which influenced, but did not determine its development. the paths and features were determined by the pace of new ideological and aesthetic tasks that were put forward by the progressive course of development of society, which entered the era of feudalism.

2. History

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, Arab culture was preceded by the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs - a nomadic and agricultural population that was in the process of transition to an early form of class society. In the 4th-6th centuries. it was influenced by the ancient Yemeni, Syro-Hellenistic, Jewish, and Iranian cultures. A characteristic element of the pre-Islamic culture of this period (the so-called jahiliyya) was the developed oral folk literature. The formation of the Arab culture itself dates back to the period of the emergence of Islam (7th century) and the creation of the Caliphate, which, as a result of the Arab conquests, turned into a huge state. The state-political community founded by the Arabs, supplemented by a religious and, in most regions, by a linguistic community, created the conditions for the emergence of common forms of cultural life for the peoples of the Caliphate. In the early stages, the formation of Arab culture was mainly a process of assimilation, reassessment and creative development in new ideological and socio-political conditions (Islam and the Caliphate) of the heritage of the cultures of the conquered peoples (Ancient Greek, Hellenistic-Roman, Aramaic, Iranian, etc.). The Arabs themselves gave Arab culture such components as the religion of Islam, the Arabic language and the tradition of Bedouin poetry. A significant contribution to the Arab culture was made by the peoples who, having adopted Islam, retained their national and then revived state independence (the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia). An important role was also played by the part of the population of the Caliphate that did not accept Islam (Christian Syrians, Jews, Zoroastrian Persians, representatives of the Gnostic sects of Asia Minor); their activities (especially the Nestorian Syrians and the Sabies of Harran) are connected, in particular, with the spread of philosophical and ethical ideas and the scientific heritage of antiquity and Hellenism. In the 8th-9th centuries. many scientific and literary monuments of antiquity were translated into Arabic, including Greek, Syrian, Middle Persian and Indian. In translations and adaptations, they became part of the Arabic script and contributed to the establishment of a successive connection with the culture of the Hellenistic world, and through it - with ancient and ancient Eastern civilization. From the end of the 7th c. until the middle of the 8th c. along with Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads, the main centers that determined the formation of Arab culture were Mecca and Medina in Arabia, Kufa and Basra in Iraq. Religious and philosophical ideas, the first achievements of science, the canons of Arabic poetry, examples of architecture, etc. spread and further developed in the provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, on a vast territory from the Pyrenees to the Indus River. With the formation of the Abbasid caliphate (750), the center of Arab culture in the east of the Caliphate moved from Syria to Iraq, to Baghdad, founded in 762, which for almost three centuries was the center of the best cultural forces of the Muslim East. In the 9th-10th centuries. Arab culture reached its peak. Its achievements have enriched the culture of many peoples, in particular the peoples of medieval Europe, and have made an outstanding contribution to world culture. This applies primarily to the development of philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geographical knowledge, philological and historical disciplines, chemistry, and mineralogy. Remarkable monuments mark the development of material culture and art (architecture, artistic craft). The division of branches of knowledge in Arab culture is conditional, because for it, as for other cultures of the Middle Ages, the absence of a clear differentiation of sciences and the encyclopedic nature of the education of most figures of Arab culture are typical. The philosopher and mathematician was often a major historian, physician, geographer, poet and philologist. An important factor in the flourishing of Arab culture was that the development of science and literature was the property of all the peoples of the Caliphate (both Arabs and non-Arabs). The enrichment of Arab culture was facilitated by the wide opportunities for communication and mutual exchange of cultural achievements between the peoples of the Muslim East, as well as lively ties with many countries of the East and Europe. The collapse of the Abbasid Caliphate (mid-10th century) in connection with the formation of independent states on its territory led to a narrowing of the sphere of distribution of Arab culture and a gradual decrease in its role in the overall development of world culture. In Muslim Spain, which separated from the Abbasid Caliphate as early as the 8th century, the so-called Arab-Spanish culture began to develop independently. In the eastern provinces of the Caliphate at the end of the 9th c. centers of Iranian cultural and national revival are formed. The Persian language displaces the Arabic language, first from literature and poetry, and then from some of the humanities (history, geography, etc.). The Arabic language retained its significance here as the language of the Koran, religious canonical (law, theology) and a number of natural sciences (medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry), as well as philosophy. Centers of Arab culture are moving to Syria, Egypt, Spain. All in. In Africa, under the Fatimids (10-12 centuries) and Ayyubids (12-13 centuries), the development of the best traditions of Arab culture in the field of science, literature, art and material culture continued, although with less influence on the overall progress of the culture of the peoples of the Muslim East than in the 8th - 1st half of the 10th centuries. By the end of the 10th c. Baghdad ceded the leading role to Cairo. The Importance of Arab Culture in the 8th-10th Centuries in the history of world culture was determined by the discovery by its creators of new means of scientific, religious-philosophical and artistic knowledge of the world and man. The main efforts of the figures of the Arab culture of subsequent periods were directed mainly to the systematization and detailing of this heritage. Although the scientific and aesthetic traditions of Arab culture were not interrupted, but from the 2nd half of the 13th century. in the works of figures of Arab culture, the epigone direction prevailed, compiling in science and imitative in literature. Separate exceptions could not affect the general state of spiritual stagnation and the increasingly noticeable lag in the development of Arab culture from the pace of cultural progress in other countries of the Muslim East (Iran, Central Asia in the 14th-15th centuries, Ottoman Turkey in the 16th century) and in Europe. The Arab-Spanish civilization experienced a brilliant flowering in the 10th-15th centuries. Its centers were Cordoba, Seville, Malaga and Granada. The greatest advances were made in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry and medicine. The development of the progressive line of Arabic philosophy also continued here [al-Farabi, about 870 - about 950; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 980-1037], presented by the works of Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198). In poetry and literature, works were created that were among the best artistic monuments of Arab culture. Monuments of Spanish-Moorish architecture and applied arts gained worldwide fame. A major achievement of the Arab culture of the late Middle Ages was the creation by the historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) of the historical and philosophical theory of social development.

In the 16th century Arab countries turned into provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Arab culture declined, although during this period the old cultural centers of Syria, Iraq and Egypt traditionally retained an attractive force for Muslim scholars. A qualitatively new period in the development of Arab culture begins in the first half of the 19th century. In the context of the economic and political revival of the Arab countries in modern times, in the conditions of the beginning of the development of the national liberation movement and, finally, the formation of independent Arab states, the formation of modern Arab culture is taking place, mainly within the framework of each of the Arab countries.

3. Exact and natural sciences

The center for the development of natural sciences in the Caliphate was originally the territory of Syria and partly the South-West of Iran. Here was the beginning of translations into Arabic and commenting on the works of ancient authors. Translations from Greek and Syriac, which introduced scholars of Islamic countries to a significant part of ancient scientific literature, in many cases were the only sources by which Western Europe could get acquainted with ancient science. For example, Heron's "Mechanics" and many treatises of Archimedes have come down to us only in Arabic translation. Through the carriers of Arab culture, many technical innovations (compass, oblique sail, etc.) entered European use, some of them were adopted from China and India. 9th-11th centuries - a period of rapid development of science in the Caliphate. Baghdad is turning into a major scientific center with schools and libraries. Along with the creation of a huge translated literature and comments on it, a scientific direction is already beginning to take shape, closely connected with the solution of applied problems and practical problems of construction, land surveying, and trade. Astronomy and mathematics, mineralogy, and descriptive geography are developing intensively. In connection with the collapse of the Caliphate into separate states (10th century), along with Baghdad, new scientific centers arose: Damascus and Aleppo (Aleppo) in Syria, Cairo in Egypt, Maragha in Azerbaijan, Samarkand in Middle East. Asia, Ghazni in Afghanistan, as well as the centers of Spanish-Arab culture - Cordoba, and then Seville and Granada. At various times, Bukhara and Isfahan were major scientific centers, where from the end of the 11th century. the Persian and Tajik poet and scientist Omar Khayyam (circa 1048 - after 1122), who wrote his scientific treatises in Arabic, worked in the observatory. In Cairo since the beginning of the 11th century. the "House of Knowledge" functioned, in which the astronomer Ibn Yunus (950--1009) and the mathematician and physicist Ibn al-Khaytham (about 965-1039) worked; in 1004 an observatory was built here. In addition to the Greek heritage, the Indian scientific tradition also had a great influence on the formation of mathematics in the countries of Islam. The decimal positional number system with the use of zero, which originates from Indian mathematics, has become widespread. The first work in Arabic devoted to arithmetic is a treatise by the leading representative of the Baghdad school, al-Khwarizmi (ninth century). In the 15th century The Samarkand scientist al-Kashi introduced decimal fractions and described the rules for working with them. In the writings of Abu-l-Vefa (940-998), the Central Asian scholar al-Biruni (973-1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Omar Khayyam, Nasiraddin Tui (1201-80, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), Kashi developed and systematized methods for extracting roots with natural indicators. The role of Khorezmi and Omar Khayyam in the creation of algebra as an independent mathematical discipline is extremely great. The algebraic treatise of Khorezmi contains a classification of quadratic equations and methods for their solutions; Omar Khayyam's treatise - the theory and classification of cubic equations. The computational techniques of Viruni, Kashi, and others were significantly improved. Of great interest are the geometric treatise of the brothers "sons of Musa" ("banu Musa") of the 9th century, the works of Abu-l-Vefa on practical geometry, the treatises of Ibn Qurra (about 836-901), Ibn al-Khaytham's treatise on the quadratures of conic sections and the cubature of bodies obtained from their rotation, the studies of al-Nairizi (9th-10th centuries), Ibn Qurra, Ibn al-Khaytham, Omar Khayyam, Tuya, and others on the theory of parallel lines. The mathematicians of the countries of Islam turned plane and spherical trigonometry from an auxiliary section of astronomy into an independent mathematical discipline. In the works of Khorezmi, al-Marwazi, al-Battani, Biruni, Nasiraddin Tuya, all six trigonometric lines in a circle were introduced, dependencies between trigonometric functions were established, all cases of solving spherical triangles were investigated, the most important trigonometry theorems were obtained, various trigonometric tables were compiled, which differed in great accuracy. Astronomy has made significant progress. First, the translation and commentary of the works of Ptolemy and Indian astronomical writings - siddhanta - were made. The center of translation activity was the "House of Wisdom" and its observatory in Baghdad. Translations of Indian astronomical treatises were made by al-Fazari, father (died about 777) and son (died about 796), and Yaqub ibn Tariq (died about 96). Starting from the Greek methods of modeling the movement of celestial bodies and the Indian calculation rules, Arab astronomers developed methods for determining the coordinates of the luminaries on the celestial sphere, as well as rules for the transition from one of the three used coordinate systems to another. Even treatises on astrology contained elements of important scientific knowledge. Zijs - collections of tables and calculation rules of spherical astronomy - were widely used. About 100 zijs from the 13th-15th centuries have come down to us. About 20 of them were compiled on the basis of the authors' own observations in the observatories of many cities: Biruni in Ghazni, Battani in Raqqa, Ibn Yunus in Cairo, Nasiraddin Tuei in Maraga, Kashi in Samarkand, and others. Arab astronomers achieved considerable accuracy in measuring the inclination of the ecliptic. Under Caliph Mamun (9th c. ) was measured by the degree of the meridian to determine the size of the globe. Further development of the heritage of ancient mechanics continued [Ibn Qurra's treatise on lever balances - korastun; treatises of Biruni, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini (12th century) on determining the specific gravity of metals and minerals]. The cycle of works on general questions of mechanics begins with the translation and commentary on the works of Aristotle. Among the commentators on the natural science writings of Aristotle were Biruni and Ibn Sina. Many scientists worked in the field of mineralogy [the works of Biruni, Khazini, scientist and doctor ar-Razi]. Information on physics, in particular atmospheric physics and geophysics, is contained in the "Canon of Masud", "Mineralogy" by Biruni, and in the "Book of Knowledge" by Ibn Sina. "Optics" of Ibn al-Khaytham was widely known in Western Europe. Great advances have been made in medicine. "The Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina has long been the main guide in medical practice both in the medieval East and in Western Europe. Among the works of Biruni there is a treatise on pharmacology. The code of medical knowledge al-Razi (864-925) is known. Questions of surgery, ophthalmology, therapy, psychiatry were developed. Chemistry and botany received some development.

4. Geography

arabic culture civilization islam

In terms of the abundance of geographical information, the variety of genres and the number of works of Arabic geography, literature has no analogy in medieval geography. Arab geographers and travelers left a description of the entire Muslim East, as well as a number of countries, including Europe, North. and Center. Africa, East coast. Africa and Asia up to Korea, the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Their works are the most important, and sometimes the only evidence of many peoples of the Middle Ages. Characteristic of the Arab geographical science is that in its theoretical constructions it proceeded, contrary to the real information it has accumulated about the geography of the Earth, from the Ptolemaic picture of the world and its geographical theory. Cartographic material usually reproduced Ptolemy's maps or schematic maps, dating back to ancient Iranian prototypes. The geographical representations of the pre-Islamic Arabs are reflected in ancient poetry and the Koran. Appearance at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. translations and processing of the astronomical and geographical works of ancient authors, especially Ptolemy, laid the foundation for Arabic scientific geography, which applied the calculation rules and tables of spherical astronomy. The highest achievement of this branch of Arabic geography, along with the works of Battani and Khorezmi, are the astronomical-geographical and geodetic works of Biruni. In the 9th century the first samples of descriptive geography also appeared [the works of Ibn Khordadbeh (about 820 - about 912/913), Kudama ibn Jafar (1st half of the 10th century), al-Yakubi (died 897 or 905)], as well as travel stories, containing fantastic and real information about countries and peoples outside the Caliphate (collection of Abu Zayd al-Sirafi, early 10th century; works by Buzurg ibn Shahriyar and others). The genre of travel descriptions developed further (notes of Ibn Fadlan, 10th century, Abu Dulaf, 10th century; travel diaries of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, died 1170, Ibn Jubair, died 1217, and Ibn Battuta, 1304-1377, travel description to Russia, Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, etc.). The heyday of Arabic geographical literature falls on the 10th century. Particularly significant were the works of representatives of the classical school of Arabic geography, devoted to the description of trade routes and regions of the Muslim world and containing the richest geographical, historical and cultural material (works of al-Istakhri, Ibn Haukal, 10th century, al-Muqaddasi, 946/947 - about 1000 ). in the 11th-14th centuries. genres of geographical dictionaries and general descriptions of the Universe arose - cosmographies that summarized the previously accumulated geographical material (dictionaries of Yakut, 1179-1229, al-Bakri, died 1094, al-Qazvini cosmography, died 1283, ad-Dimashki, died 1327, Abul-l- feeds). In Europe, al-Idrisi (1100-1165 or 1161) received the greatest fame. His writings with 70 maps were considered the best geographical treatise in the Middle Ages. In addition to describing the Muslim East, it contains a variety of information about the countries and peoples of the Zap. and Vost. Europe. The subsequent development of geography proceeded mainly along the lines of creating extensive compilations, especially cosmographies and historical and topographic descriptions of individual cities and countries (for example, the works of al-Makrizi). Of great value are the geographical sections in the works of an-Nuwayri, al-Umari, al-Kalkashandi, and others. A major contribution to Arabic geographical science was the work of the pilot Vasco da Gama - Ibn Majid (15th century) and al-Mehri (16th century) , summarizing the theory and centuries-old practice of Arab navigation.

5. Philosophy

The main content of the history of medieval Arabic philosophy was the struggle of the Eastern peripatetics, who came from the Hellenistic heritage, and the supporters of religious-idealistic teachings. The prehistory of the emergence of proper philosophical thought in the Arab East dates back to the second half of the 8th century. and is associated with the Mu'tazilites, the early representatives of rational theology (kalam), who, starting with a discussion of divine attributes and free will, ended up developing concepts that not only went beyond religious issues, but also undermined faith in some of the basic tenets of Islam. Thus, consistently pursuing the idea of monotheism, the Mu'tazilites rejected the presence of positive attributes in God that complemented his essence; denying in it, in particular, the attribute of speech, they rejected the idea of the eternity of the Qur'an and, on this basis, concluded that its allegorical interpretation was admissible. Mu'tazilites developed the concept of reason as the only measure of truth and the position of the creator's inability to change the natural order of things. The idea of the atomic structure of the world was widespread among the Mu'tazilites. Thus, on the one hand, they laid the foundation for rational geology, on the other hand, they cleared the ground for the emergence of a purely philosophical free-thinking of the Peripatetics. As a reaction to the ideas of the Mutazilites, the doctrine of the Asharis (followers of al-Ashari, 873 or 874 - 935/936) developed, who directed rational theology into the mainstream of the philosophical defense of the dogmas of divine providence and miracles (it is with this doctrine that the term "kalam" is often associated and the main its representatives are called mutakallims). According to the teachings of the Asharis, nature turned out to be a heap of atoms and their qualities, unrelated to each other and instantly recreated by God; in the world, they argued, there are no causal relationships, because the Almighty is able at any moment to give any object any form and any movement. In opposition to both the speculations of theologians and the teachings of the Peripatetics, Sufism developed. Using the ideas of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism together with the elements of the Muslim worldview, the Sufis developed the doctrine of the ways leading a person through renunciation of worldly passions and contemplation of God to the contemplation of God in mystical intuition and final merging with him. At the same time, at some stages of its development, Sufi ideas were interpreted in the spirit of naturalistic pantheism. Sufi mysticism, at first subjected to persecution by the orthodox clergy, was legitimized by al-Ghazali (1059-1111), the greatest representative of religious idealistic philosophy. In his criticism of the "heretical" and "opposite" views of the Peripatetics, Ghazali defended, along with mystical Sufism, the positions of the Asharis, refusing, however, to accept their atomistic theory. One of the most influential representatives of Sufism can also be considered Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240). Eastern peripatetism was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, which passed to the Arabs through Syrian translators, partly in the interpretation of the Athenian and Alexandrian schools, as well as other ancient teachings, in particular the political theory of Plato. The interpretations of Aristotle by the Eastern Peripatetics opened the way for atheistic and even materialistic conceptions. Thus, the proposition about dual truth, which was already hidden in the teachings of the Mu'tazilites, presupposed allegorical interpretations of the tenets of Islam. The founder of Eastern peripatetism was al-Kindi (about 800 - 879), who was the first in Arabic philosophy to outline the content of the main works of Aristotle. He was the first to present (on the basis of the classification of intellects dating back to Alexander of Aphrodisias) rational knowledge as the attachment of the individual's mind to the universal, deities, mind. Kindi's deism, his idea of God as a faceless "remote cause", developed within the framework of al-Farabi's neoplatonic theory of emanation. The ontological and epistemological ideas of Farabi were deepened and detailed by the greatest thinker of the Middle Ages, Ibn Sina, who asserted the eternity of matter and the independence of particular phenomena of life from divine providence. In the 12th century the center of philosophical thought moves to the West of the Muslim world - to Spain. Here in Andalusia, similar humanistic themes are being developed by Ibn Baja, who reflects on the ability of a person through purely intellectual perfection, without mystical insight, to achieve complete happiness and merge with an active mind, and Ibn Tufayl, in a philosophical robinsonade, describing the history of the development and knowledge of nature by mankind, setting out simultaneously in allegorical form the concept of dual truth. However, Andalusian philosophy, and with it all medieval Arab philosophy, reaches its peak in the work of Ibn Rushd, who defended the ideas of peripatetism from the attacks of the Asharis and Ghazali and created an independent philosophical doctrine. Rejecting the teachings of Ibn Sina about the introduction of forms into matter from the outside, Ibn Rushd came up with the thesis about the immanence of the forms of matter itself. He also denied the immortality of individual souls, considering only the human intellect to be eternal, joining the active divine mind, which embodies the ultimate goal of human knowledge. A major role in the history of medieval philosophy was played by the development of the concept of dual truth by Ibn Rushd. Another major thinker of the Arab West was Ibn Khaldun, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of the philosophy of history. Arab philosophy found a second life in Europe - in the activities of the Averroists (followers of Ibn Rushd) and other fighters against the official ideology of Catholicism.

6. Historical science

Arabic (Arabic-language) historiography as an independent discipline stood out at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. The first records of historical content date back to the end of the 7th century. The material for the early monuments of historical literature in Arabic was the historical and genealogical traditions of the Arab tribes, semi-legendary reports about pre-Islamic states in South Arabia and about the Arab principalities in Syria (Ghassanids) and Iraq (Lahmids), as well as religious and historical legends about the emergence and spread of Islam, especially about the activities of Muhammad and his companions. The scheme of world history accepted in Arab historiography was formed under the influence of the Koranic idea of the past as a successive series of prophetic missions, and the constructions of Muslim genealogists and exegetes of the 7th-8th centuries, who connected the genealogical tree of the Arabs with the biblical "table of peoples". A significant role in the creation of historiography was played by the development of astronomical knowledge (establishing the chronology of world history) and the use of materials from Iranian historical and epic tradition (translations of the "Book of Kings" of Sasanian Iran), as well as apocryphal Judeo-Christian traditions. Medieval Arabic historiography proceeds from the theological interpretation of the course of world history as the realization of the divine plan for the human race. At the same time, she recognizes the responsibility of a person for his actions and sees the task of the historian in teaching by historical experience. The idea of the didactic value of history, accepted by most Muslim historians, was especially clearly formulated by Ibn Miskawayh (died 1030). Arab historians did not go beyond narrative history, and only Ibn Khaldun made an attempt to proceed to the presentation of historical events in their causal connection, having developed an original doctrine of the general laws of the development of human society. The forerunners of professional Arab historians were connoisseurs and collectors of genealogies and oral tribal traditions. These materials were systematized by Muhammad al-Kalbi (died 763), supplemented and written down by his son Hisham (died about 819). In addition to the monumental collection of genealogies of the Arabs by Hisham al-Kalbi, similar collections were compiled by Muarrijas-Sadusi (died 811), Suhaym ibn Hafs (died 806), Musab al-Zubairi (died 851), Zubair ibn Bakkar (died 870), Ibn Hazm (died 1030), al-Kalkashandi (1355-1418), and others. The largest figure in the initial period of Arabic historiography was Muhammad al-Zuhri (died 741/42), who combined the collection of genealogies and tribal traditions with an interest in the political history of the Caliphate. He owns one of the first records of legends about the military campaigns of Muhammad (the so-called maghazi). The first large historical work in Arabic (the history of the ancient prophets and the life of Muhammad) by Ibn Iskhan (circa 704-768 or 767) served as a model for subsequent writings on this topic. The most significant are the works of al-Waqidi (747-823), Ibn Sada (died 845), later compilations of Ibn Said al-Nas, Nuraddin al-Halabi, and others. They are adjoined by the hagiographic literature popular in the Middle Ages, mostly fantastic stories about the prophets and Muslim saints. For the 2nd half of the 8th - the middle of the 9th centuries. characteristic is the predominance of historical works devoted to individual events, mainly from the history of the Arab conquests and civil wars in the Caliphate of the 7th - early 8th centuries. [Abu Mikhnaf (died 774), Abu Ubaida (died about 824) and especially al-Madaini (died about the middle of the ninth century)]. Iraq became the center of Arab historiography for a long time. From the 2nd half of the 9th c. there are works that combine the accumulated material into a coherent historical narrative. The most significant were the works of al-Baladhuri (about 820 - about 892); Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri (died about 895) and al-Yakubi on world history, which became the leading genre of historiography during its heyday (9th - 1st half of the 11th centuries). Compiled more often in the form of annals, they contained an overview of world history from the creation of the world, the initial history of the Muslim community, a description of the Arab conquests and the political history of the Caliphate (the reign of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties). The largest work of this genre is the multi-volume "History of the Prophets and Kings" by at-Tabari (838 or 839-923). The general history of al-Masudi (died 956 or 957), Hamza al-Isfahani (died in the second half of the 10th century), Ibn Miskawayh, and later Ibn al-Asir (1160-1233 or 1234), Ibn Khaldun and other historians of the 9th-10th centuries. is distinguished by the breadth of outlook, reflecting the encyclopedic nature of their interests and knowledge (especially Yakubi and Masudi, who collected material on the history and culture of peoples outside of Muslim countries).

Such are the history of Baghdad - al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002-71), Damascus - al-Qalanisi (died 1160) and Ibn Asakir (1105-1176), Aleppo (Aleppo) - Ibn al-Adima (1192-1262), Granada - Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374). One of the main places in Arabic historiography is occupied by biographical literature proper: general biographical dictionaries of Yakut, Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and al-Safadi (1296/97 - 1363), collections of biographies of figures in the field of philosophy, medicine and natural sciences of Ibn al- Kifti (1172-1248) and Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) and others. Historical writings in Arabic were written not only in Arabic, but also in other countries of the Muslim East, including India, Iran, Turkey and the East. Africa. The era of Turkish domination (16th - early 20th centuries) is represented mainly by epigone compilations on general and local history, biographical and historical-bibliographic collections. Of greatest value are the history of Andalusia by al-Maqkari (1591/92 - 1632) and the biographical work of the Egyptian historian al-Khafaji (died 1659).

7. Literature

In the first centuries of Islam, the art of rhyming becomes a court craft in large cities. Poets also acted as literary critics. In the VIII-X centuries. many works of pre-Islamic Arabic oral poetry were recorded. So, in the ninth century. Two collections of "Hamas" ("Songs of Valor") were compiled, which included poems by more than 500 Old Arabic poets. In the X century. The writer, scientist, musician Abu-l-Faraj Al-Isfahani compiled a multi-volume anthology "Kitab al-Agani" ("Book of Songs"), including works and biographies of poets, as well as information about composers and performers. The attitude of the Arabs towards poets, with all their admiration for poetry, was not unambiguous. They believed that the inspiration that helps them write poetry comes from demons, shaitans: they eavesdrop on the conversations of angels, and then tell priests and poets about them. In addition, the Arabs were almost not at all interested in the specific personality of the poet. They believed that little should be known about the poet: whether his talent was great and whether his ability to clairvoyance was strong. Therefore, complete and reliable information about all the great poets of the Arab East has not been preserved. An outstanding poet was Abu Nuwas (between 747-762 - between 813-815), masterfully owning the form of verse. He was characterized by irony and frivolity. he sang of love, merry feasts, and laughed at the then fashionable fascination with old Bedouin verses. Abul-Atahiya sought support in asceticism and faith. Moral poems about the vanity of everything earthly and the injustice of life belong to his pen. Detachment from the world was not easy for him, this is evidenced by his nickname - "not knowing a sense of proportion." Al-Mutanabbi's life was spent in endless wanderings. He was ambitious and proud, and sometimes he praised the rulers of Syria, Egypt, Iran in his poems, sometimes he quarreled with them. Many of his poems became aphorisms, turned into songs and proverbs. The work of Abu-l-Ala al-Maari (973--1057/58) from Syria is considered the pinnacle of medieval Arabic poetry, and an excellent result of the synthesis of the complex and variegated culture of Arab-Muslim history. It is known that at the age of four he suffered smallpox and became blind, but this did not prevent him from studying the Koran, theology, Muslim law, old Arabic traditions and modern poetry. He also knew Greek philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, traveled a lot in his youth, and colossal erudition is felt in his poems. He was a seeker of truth and justice, and there are several distinctly dominant themes in his lyrics: the mystery of life and death, the depravity of man and society, the presence of evil and suffering in the world, which, in his opinion, was an inevitable law of being (the book of lyrics "The Obligation of the Optional ", "Message of forgiveness", "Message of angels"). In the X-XV centuries. Gradually, the world-famous collection of Arabic folk tales "A Thousand and One Nights" was gradually formed. They were based on reworked plots of Persian, Indian, Greek legends, the action of which was transferred to the Arab court and urban environment, as well as Arabic tales proper. These are fairy tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. The heroes of fairy tales were also princesses, sultans, merchants, townspeople. The favorite character of medieval Arabic literature was - impudent and cautious, crafty and ingenuous, the keeper of pure Arabic speech. Omar Khayyam (1048--1122), a Persian poet, scientist, brought enduring world fame, his poems are philosophical, hedonistic and free-thinking rubai. In medieval Arab culture, poetry and prose were closely intertwined: poetry was most naturally included in love stories, medical treatises, heroic stories, philosophical and historical works, and even official messages of medieval rulers. And all Arabic literature was united by the Muslim faith and the Koran: quotes and turns from there were found everywhere. Orientalists believe that the flourishing of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture as a whole falls on the 8th-9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world was at the head of world civilization. From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, secular culture is oppressed, and pressure on the natural sciences increases. Public burning of books became common practice. The main scientific achievements of the Arab figures of science and culture thus date back to the Early Middle Ages.

8. Visual arts

The specificity of the medieval art of the Arab countries, as well as the entire Near and Middle East, is very complex. It reflected the living content of reality, but, like the entire culture of the Middle Ages, deeply imbued with a religious and mystical worldview, it did so in a conditional, often symbolic form, having developed its own special figurative language for works of art. The innovation of medieval Arabic literature and, at the same time, its vital basis is characterized by an appeal to the spiritual world of man, the creation of moral ideals that had universal significance. The fine arts of the Arab East are also imbued with great figurative power. However, just as literature used predominantly a conditional form to embody its images, so in the visual arts, the life content was expressed in a special language of decorative art. The conventionality of the "language" of medieval fine art among most peoples was associated with the principle of decorativeness, characteristic not only of external forms, but also of the structure itself, the figurative structure of a work of art. The richness of decorative fantasy and its masterful implementation in applied art, miniature and architecture are an integral and valuable quality of the remarkable works of artists of that era. In the art of the Arab East, decorativeness acquired especially bright and original features, becoming the basis of the figurative structure of painting and giving rise to the richest art of pattern, which has a complex ornamental rhythm and often increased coloristic sonority. In the narrow framework of the medieval worldview, the artists of the Arab East found their own way of embodying the richness of the life around them. The rhythm of the pattern, its "carpetiness", the fine plasticity of ornamental forms, the unique harmony of bright and pure colors, they expressed a great aesthetic content. The image of a man was not excluded from the field of attention of artists, although the appeal to him was limited, especially during the period of strengthening religious prohibitions. Images of people fill illustrations in manuscripts and are often found in patterns on objects of applied art; monuments of monumental painting with multi-figured scenes and sculptural pictorial reliefs are also known. However, even in such works the human image is subordinated to the general decorative solution. Even endowing the figures of people with many vital features, the artists of the Arab East interpreted them flatly, conditionally. In applied art, figures of people are most often included in the ornament; they lose their significance as an independent image, becoming an integral part of the pattern. Ornament - "music for the eyes" - plays a very important role in the medieval art of the peoples of the Arab East. To a certain extent, it compensates for the visual limitations of some types of art and is one of the important means of expressing artistic content. The arabesque, which in its essence goes back to classical antique motifs, which became widespread in the countries of the medieval East, was a new type of ornamental composition that allowed the artist to fill in a complex, woven, like lace, pattern of any plane. Initially, plant motifs predominated in the arabesque. Later, girih became widespread - a linear geometric ornament built on a complex combination of polygons and multi-beam stars. In the development of the arabesque, which was used to decorate both large architectural planes and various household items, the masters of the Arab East achieved amazing virtuosity, creating countless compositions that always combine two principles: a logically rigorous mathematical construction of a pattern and a great spiritualizing power of artistic imagination. . The features of the Arab medieval art also include the widespread use of epigraphic ornament - the text of the inscriptions, organically included in the decorative pattern. We note in passing that the religion of all arts especially encouraged calligraphy: it was considered a righteous deed for a Muslim to copy a text from the Koran. One of the main features of the fine arts of the medieval Arab East, (unlike, for example, the fine arts of the European Middle Ages), was that sculpture and painting, as a rule, were purely decorative and were an ornamental addition to architecture.

9. Architecture

Architectural features common to many peoples of the Near and Middle East were associated with the natural and climatic conditions of the countries and the capabilities of construction equipment. In the architecture of dwellings, methods for planning houses with courtyards and with terraces protected from heat have long been developed. The construction technique gave rise to special constructions made of clay, brick and stone. The architects of that time created various forms of arches - horseshoe-shaped and especially lancet, invented their own systems of vaulted ceilings. They achieved exceptional skill and artistic expressiveness in laying large domes supported by tromps (a constructive system that arose back in the pre-feudal period). Medieval architects of the Arab East created new types of monumental religious and secular buildings: mosques that accommodated thousands of worshipers; minarets - towers from which the faithful were called to prayer; madrasah - buildings of Muslim religious schools; caravanserais and covered markets, corresponding to the scope of the trade activities of cities; palaces of rulers, fortified citadels, fortress walls with gates and towers. Arab architects, the authors of many masterpieces of medieval art, paid great attention to the decorative possibilities of architecture. Therefore, one of the characteristic features of the synthesis of arts in monumental architecture is the important role of decorative forms and the special significance of the ornament, which either with monochrome lace or with a colorful carpet covers the walls and vaults of buildings. Stalactites (muqarns) were widely used in the architecture of the Arab East - decorative filling of vaults, niches and cornices in the form of prismatic figures with a thread-like cutout, arranged in rows protruding one above the other. Stalactites arose from a constructive technique - a special brick laying to create a transition from the square of the walls to the circle of the dome in the corners of the premises.

The types of architectural structures differed in diversity. The most iconic monuments of architecture were: mosques, minarets, palaces, madrasahs, caravanserais, mausoleums (turbe) - tombs crowned with a dome. By the 11th century, a specific type of Arab mosque column (Muslim temple) had developed. The appearance of the mosque resembles a fortress surrounded by blank walls, in which entrances are punched without marking the main entrance. Unlike a Christian temple, there is no central axis in the columned hall of the mosque, which would direct the movement of worshipers to the sanctuary. On the contrary, entering the hall of the mosque, you need to stop to take in the view of the rows of pillars extending in all directions, located across the movement to the mihrab (a richly decorated niche in the wall, indicating the direction to Mecca). Since ancient times, a minaret was erected next to the mosque (a high tower from which the muezzin - a special employee at the mosque - calls Muslims to prayer). The minaret is directly adjacent to the mosque, rarely located separately. It unites the mosque with other city buildings, with the space of the surrounding world and with the infinity of the sky. In the Islamic world, many original and dissimilar forms of minarets have been created. So, in the Near and Middle East, the round, slightly tapering shape of the minaret dominated. The minarets of Ottoman Turkey, very high, multifaceted and multi-tiered, were distinguished by a peculiar silhouette; in appearance resembling sharply honed giant pencils, directed to the bottomless sky. One of the most famous monuments of Arab architecture was the Great Mosque of the Umayyad dynasty, erected in 705-715. by order of Caliph Walid in Damascus (the capital of Syria). This mosque made a stunning impression on contemporaries with exquisite and rich marble inlays; magnificent mosaics and gilding of the capitals of the columns. The desire for the isolation of the space of the building is one of the main features of the Arab medieval architecture. The walls of architectural structures were a barrier that hid what was behind it. Thus, the meaning of the building was concentrated inside.

10. Music

The heyday of classical Arabic music dates back to the end of the 11th century. In the Middle Ages, the rich secular vocal and instrumental Arabic music had a strong influence on the musical art of Spain and Portugal, and on the formation of certain types of European musical instruments. By this time, Arabic musical science also reached a high level of development. Traditionally, classical Arabic music is predominantly vocal in nature. This is due to the unusual susceptibility of the Arabs to singing, so strong that for many, as they say, "the soul flew away." The most popular genre at that time was the vocal-instrumental ensemble, in which the leading role belonged to the singer.

In general, one can distinguish common features Islamic type of culture and art:

Religious in nature, a strict ban on images of God;

· innovation is not characteristic, because, as a rule, techniques and themes of the art of the conquered peoples are used;

· the lack of a single style contributes to the development of local schools (Turkish, Persian, Spanish-Arabic, etc.);

This type of culture and art is not characterized by realism, since Islam forbids depicting living beings.

The culture of the Arab East, having spread over a vast territory, had a great influence not only on the culture, art and way of life of numerous Islamic states, but also on the culture of those peoples with whom it had been in contact throughout its long history. The medieval culture of the Arab East for many centuries was the actual frontier dividing Europe and Asia. At the same time, it is a kind of bridge between two worlds, religions and cultures, where East and West meet, never to part again.

Bibliography

1) R.G. Apresyan, B.A. Botvinnik and others. Culturology: a textbook for universities; ed. B.A. Erengross. - M.: Oniks Publishing House, 2007. - 480 p. - ISBN - 978-5-488-01034-5

Already in the Early Middle Ages, the Arabs had rich folklore traditions, they valued the spoken word, a beautiful phrase, a good comparison, a proverb uttered to the point. Each tribe of Arabia had its own poet, who praised his fellow tribesmen and branded his enemies. The poet used rhythmic prose, there were many rhythms. It is believed that they were born in a camel saddle, when the Bedouin sang along the way, adjusting to the course of his “ship of the desert”1.

The attitude of the Arabs towards poets, with all their admiration for poetry, was not unambiguous. They believed that the inspiration that helps them write poetry comes from demons, shaitans: they eavesdrop on the conversations of angels, and then tell priests and poets about them. In addition, the Arabs were almost not at all interested in the specific personality of the poet. They believed that little should be known about the poet: whether his talent was great and whether his ability to clairvoyance was strong.

Therefore, complete and reliable information about all the great poets of the Arab East has not been preserved.

was an outstanding poet Abu Nuwas(between 747-762 - between 813-815), masterfully mastering the form of verse. He was characterized by irony and

frivolity, he sang love, merry feasts and laughed at the then fashionable passion for old Bedouin poems.

Abul-Atahiya sought support in asceticism and faith. Moral poems about the vanity of everything earthly and the injustice of life belong to his pen. Detachment from the world was not easy for him, this is evidenced by his nickname - "not knowing a sense of proportion."

Life Al Mutanabbi passed in endless wanderings. He was ambitious and proud, and sometimes he praised the rulers of Syria, Egypt, Iran in his poems, sometimes he quarreled with them. Many of his poems became aphorisms, turned into songs and proverbs.

Creation Abu'l'Ala al Ma'ari(973-1057 / 58) from Syria is considered the pinnacle of Arabic medieval poetry, and an excellent result of the synthesis of the complex and colorful culture of Arab-Muslim history. It is known that at the age of four he suffered smallpox and became blind, but this did not prevent him from studying the Koran, theology, Muslim law, old Arabic traditions and modern poetry. He also knew Greek philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, traveled a lot in his youth, and colossal erudition is felt in his poems. He was a seeker of truth and justice, and there are several distinctly dominant themes in his lyrics: the mystery of life and death, the depravity of man and society, the presence of evil and suffering in the world, which, in his opinion, was an inevitable law of being (the book of lyrics "The Obligation of the Optional ”, “Message of forgiveness”, “Message of angels”).

In the X-XV centuries. Gradually, a collection of Arabic folk tales, now famous all over the world, gradually developed "Thousand and One Nights". They were based on reworked plots of Persian, Indian, Greek legends, the action of which was transferred to the Arab court and urban environment, as well as Arabic tales proper. These are fairy tales about Ali Baba, Aladdin, Sinbad the Sailor, etc. The heroes of fairy tales were also princesses, sultans, merchants, townspeople. The favorite character of medieval Arabic literature was the Bedouin - impudent and cautious, crafty and ingenuous, the keeper of pure Arabic speech.

Enduring world fame brought Omar Khayyam(1048-1122), Persian poet, scientist, his poems are philosophical, hedonistic and freethinking ruby:

Gentle female face and green grass

I will enjoy as long as I'm alive.

I drank wine, I drink wine and I probably will

Drink wine until the moment of your fatal.

In medieval Arab culture, poetry and prose were closely intertwined: poetry was most naturally included in love stories, medical treatises, heroic stories, philosophical and historical works, and even official messages of medieval rulers. And all Arabic literature was united by the Muslim faith and the Koran: quotes and turns from there were found everywhere.

Orientalists believe that the heyday of Arabic poetry, literature, and culture as a whole falls on the 8th-9th centuries: during this period, the rapidly developing Arab world was at the head of world civilization. From the 12th century the level of cultural life is declining. Persecution of Christians and Jews begins, which was expressed in their physical extermination, secular culture is oppressed, and pressure on the natural sciences increases. Public burning of books became common practice. The main scientific achievements of Arab scientists thus date back to the Early Middle Ages.

The contribution of the Arabs to mathematical science was significant. Living in the tenth century Abu-l-Wafa derived the theorem of sines of spherical trigonometry, calculated the table of sines with an interval of 15 °, introduced the segments corresponding to the secant and cosecant.

Poet, scientist Omar Khayyam wrote "Algebra" - an outstanding work, which contained a systematic study of equations of the third degree. He also dealt successfully with the problem of irrational and real numbers. He owns the philosophical treatise "On the universality of being." In 1079 he introduced a calendar more accurate than the modern Gregorian.

An outstanding scientist of Egypt was Ibn al-Haytham, mathematician and physicist, author of famous works on optics.

Medicine achieved great success - it developed more successfully than in Europe or the Far East. Arab medieval medicine glorified Ibn Sina - Avicenna(980-1037), author of an encyclopedia of theoretical and clinical medicine, summarizing the views and experience of Greek, Roman Indian and Central Asian doctors "The Canon of Medicine". For many centuries, this work has been a mandatory guide for physicians. Abu Bakr Muhammad ar-Razi, famous Baghdad surgeon, gave a classic description of smallpox and measles, used smallpox vaccination. Syrian family Bakhtisho gave seven generations of famous doctors.

Arab philosophy largely developed on the basis of the ancient heritage. Scientists-philosophers were Ibn-Sina, the author of the philosophical treatise "Book of Healing". Scientists actively translated the works of ancient authors.

Famous philosophers were Al Kindi, who lived in the ninth century, and al-Farabi(870-950), called the "second teacher", that is, after Aristotle, whom Farabi commented on. Scientists united in a philosophical circle "Brothers of Purity" in the city of Basra, compiled an encyclopedia of the philosophical scientific achievements of their time.

Historical thought also developed. If in the VII-VIII centuries. in Arabic, no historical writings proper had yet been written and there were simply many legends about Muhammad, the campaigns and conquests of the Arabs, then in the 9th century. major works on history are being compiled. Leading representatives of historical science were al-Beladhuri, writing about the Arab conquests, al-Nakubi, at-Tabari And al-Masudi, authors of works on general history. It is history that will actually remain the only branch of scientific knowledge that will develop in the 13th-15th centuries. under the dominance of a fanatical Muslim clergy, when neither the exact sciences nor mathematics developed in the Arab East. The most famous historians of the XIV-XV centuries. were Egyptian Macrisi, compiled the history of the Copts, and Ibn Khaldun, the first of the Arab historians who tried to create a theory of history. As the main factor determining the historical process, he singled out the natural conditions of the country.

Arabic literature also enjoyed the attention of scientists: at the turn of the VIII-IX centuries. Arabic grammar was compiled, which formed the basis of all subsequent grammars.

Cities were the centers of medieval Arabic science Baghdad, Kufa, Basra, Harron. The scientific life of Baghdad was especially lively, where "House of Science" - a kind of association of the academy, observatory, library and collegium of translators:

By the X century. in many cities, secondary and higher Muslim schools appeared - madrasah. In the X-XIII centuries. in Europe, the sign decimal system for recording numbers became known from Arabic writings, called "Arabic numerals".

It should be said that medieval Arab architecture developed on the basis of the processing by the Arabs, primarily of Greek, Roman and Iranian artistic traditions.

The most famous architectural monuments of that time Amr Mosque in Fustat And cathedral mosque in Kufa, created in the 7th century At the same time, the famous Temple "Dome of the Rock" in Damascus, decorated with mosaics and multi-colored marble. From the 7th-8th centuries mosques had a rectangular courtyard surrounded by galleries, a multi-columned prayer hall. Later, monumental portals appeared on the main facade.

Since the X century. buildings are beginning to be decorated with elegant floral and geometric ornaments, which included stylized inscriptions - Arabic tie. Such an ornament, the Europeans called it arabesque, was built on the principle of endless development and rhythmic repetition of the pattern.

The object of the Hajj1 of the Muslims was Kaaba - temple in Mecca, shaped like a cube. In its wall there is a niche with a black stone - according to modern researchers, probably of meteorite origin. This black stone is revered as a symbol of Allah, personifying his presence.

Islam, advocating strict monotheism, fought against the tribal cults of the Arabians. In order to destroy the memory of tribal idols, sculpture was forbidden in Islam, images of living beings were not approved. As a result, painting did not receive significant development in Arab culture, being limited to ornaments. From the 12th century art began to develop miniatures, including bookstore.

In general, the fine arts went into carpeting, flowery and patterned became its characteristic features. The combination of bright colors, however, was always strictly geometric, rational and subject to Muslim symbols.

The Arabs considered red to be the best color for the eyes - it was the color of women, children and joy. As much as red was loved, gray was despised. White, black and purple were interpreted as the colors of mourning, the rejection of the joys of life. Particularly prominent in Islam green color who had exceptional prestige. For many centuries it was forbidden both for non-Muslims and for the lower strata of adherents of Islam.

16.3. Life and customs of the Arabs

In addition to sermons, prayers, spells, edifying stories and parables, the Koran contains both ritual and legal regulations that regulate various aspects of the life of Muslim society. In accordance with these prescriptions, family, legal, property relations of people were built. The set of norms of morality, law, cultural and other attitudes that regulate the entire public and private life of a Muslim, called sharia1, is an essential part of the Islamic system.

Sharia was formed during the 7th-8th centuries. By the 9th century on the basis of Sharia norms, an evaluation scale was developed for all the actions of believers.

TO obligatory actions those whose non-compliance was punished during life and after death were included: reading prayers, observing fasting, various rituals of Islam. in number desired actions included additional prayers and fasting, as well as charity, this was encouraged during life and rewarded after death. Indifferent actions - sleep, food, marriage, etc. - were not encouraged or prohibited. disapproved, although not punishable actions, actions caused by the desire to enjoy earthly goods were called: the culture of the medieval Arab East, prone to luxury, was sensual. This was especially evident in food. In the cities, expensive, Indian pistachio kernels soaked in rose water, apples from Syria, sugarcane stalks, edible clay from Nishapur1 were held in high esteem. An important role was played by incense used in life: fragrant oils were prepared from lotus, daffodils, white jasmine, lilies, carnations, roses, violet oil baths were popular, etc. K forbidden deeds included those who were punished both during life and after death: for example, it was forbidden to drink wine, eat pork, gamble, engage in usury, conjure, etc. Despite the prohibitions of Islam, many inhabitants of the medieval Arab East continued to drink wine (especially was characteristic of cities), but all other prohibitions - on pork, blood, meat of any animal killed not according to the Muslim rite - were strictly observed.

Based on the Koran and taking into account pre-Islamic traditions, the law of inheritance, guardianship, marriage and divorce was developed. Marriage was seen as the most important event in the life of a man and a woman. The union of a cousin and sister was considered ideal, and the number of legal wives was limited to four. The subordinate position of women in the family and society was confirmed, and kinship was kept strictly along the paternal line.

The man was recognized as the absolute leader. God's blessing, as they believed in the Arab East, lay precisely on the sons, and therefore only after the birth of a son was a person considered complete here. A real man was distinguished by generosity, generosity, the ability to love and have fun, valor, loyalty to a given word. The man was required to constantly assert his superiority, to be persistent, patient and ready for any adversity. It was on him to take care of the elders and the younger, he had to know his genealogy and tribal traditions.

Islam had a beneficial effect on the attitude of society towards slaves: the release of a slave was now seen as a humane and desirable act for a pious Muslim. However, throughout the Middle Ages, the number of slaves almost did not decrease, the slave trade was a common occupation for merchants, and slaves were one of the most popular goods in the eastern markets: stable traditions changed slowly.

The traditional norms of behavior of Eastern society were combined with traditional thinking. It, in turn, was largely determined by mythology.

Its most important component was ginnology - doctrine of jinn 2. Islam defined their place in the world in this way: jinn-demons created from

pure fire, were inferior to man, created by Allah from clay, and, of course, to angels, created from light. All of them - both man, and angels, and demons - are obedient to the will of Allah.

Demon genies are somewhat similar to humans: they are mortal, although they can live for a very long time, many hundreds of years, they need food, they can marry each other or with people. In many ways, however, they were superior to humans: they were able to fly, penetrate deep into the earth and water, become visible and invisible, turn into various people, animals, and plants.

Jinn could be good and evil; the good accepted Islam, the evil remained infidels, but a person should be wary of both. The most ferocious demon-shaitans were called marids, they had to be especially careful. In addition, bloodthirsty and malicious were ifrits, - whether evil spirits, or the ghosts of the dead. Hairy werewolves lived in cemeteries and other abandoned desert places. ghouls, always ready to devour the lone traveler.

In general, in the Arab East they believed that genies lie in wait for a person at every turn. Therefore, even in everyday everyday life, one should be on the alert: for example, before lighting a fire in the hearth or getting water from a well, one should ask Allah for protection from demons and demonesses.

Provided some protection from evil forces amulets. The most important amulet was a palm made of copper with a blue bead - it was the "palm of Fatima" - named after the daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. It was believed that the "palm of Fatima", as well as other amulets - flat silver twin frogs, silver brooches, cowrie shells - protected a person from the evil eye.

They were very afraid of the evil eye and many phenomena in life were explained to them - from illness to crop failure. It was believed that the power of the evil eye is greatly enhanced if it is accompanied by unfriendly or, on the contrary, too flattering speeches. Thus, evasiveness in speeches, a tendency to constant reservations: “By the will of Allah”, a desire to hide from strangers behind a blank wall their private family life were brought up. This also influenced the style of clothing, primarily women's: women wore deaf face coverings and rather shapeless dresses, almost completely hiding the figure.

Great importance in the Arab East was attached to dreams; they believed in prophetic dreams, and already at the beginning of the XI century. Ad-Dinavari made the first dream book in Arabic. It was not allowed to invent and invent dreams: “He who lies about his dreams will answer on the day of the rising of the dead,” the Koran says.

Divination dreams were a means of looking into the future. In addition, they guessed by birds, primarily by the flight of ravens and eagles, and were sure that the kite, ostrich, dove and owl portend misfortune. The desire to look into the unknown led to the practice of magic and divination. The attitude to magic was ambiguous: it was allowed white, or high Magic, resorted to by pious people for noble purposes. In this they were helped by heavenly angels and good genies who converted to Islam. black magic believed in the Arab East, dishonest people were engaged, and evil shaitans acted as their assistants.

The propensity for divination, like many other features of the mentality of the inhabitants of the Middle East, was discovered long before the adoption of Islam there and survived the Middle Ages, passing into the Modern Age, and then the Modern Age.

Arab medieval culture developed in those countries that were subjected to Arabization, adopted Islam and in which the classical Arabic language dominated for a long time as the language of state institutions, literature and religion.

The entire medieval Arab culture, everyday life and way of life of people, moral standards in society developed under the influence of the Islamic religion, which arose among the tribes of the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century.

The greatest flourishing of Arab culture fell on the VIII-XI centuries. At this time, poetry was successfully developed, which gave the world Omar Khayyam and for which a secular, cheerful and at the same time philosophical character was inherent; the world-famous fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” were compiled; many works of other peoples, especially ancient authors, were actively translated into Arabic.

The Arabs made a significant contribution to the world of mathematical science, the development of medicine and philosophy. They created such unique architectural monuments as mosques and the famous temples in Mecca and Damascus, giving significant originality to the buildings, decorating them with an ornament - Arabic script.

The influence of Islam led to the underdevelopment of painting and sculpture in the Arab culture, predetermining the departure of fine arts into carpeting.

Islam is the youngest of the three world religions and its importance is steadily increasing. IN modern world Islam is the world's second largest religion in terms of the number of followers.

Arabic culture

medieval culture that developed in the Arab Caliphate in the 7th-10th centuries. in the process of cultural interaction between the Arabs and the peoples of the Middle and Middle regions conquered by them. East, Sev. Africa and Southwest. Europe. In scientific literature, the term "A. To." is used both to refer to the culture of the Arab peoples themselves, and in application to the medieval Arabic-speaking culture of a number of other peoples that were part of the Caliphate. In the latter sense, the term "A. To." sometimes identified with the concept of "Muslim culture" (i.e., the culture of Muslim peoples) and its use is conditional.

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula, Asia was preceded by the culture of the pre-Islamic Arabs, a nomadic and agricultural population that was in the process of transition to an early form of class society. Its bearers were mostly polytheists. In the 4th-6th centuries. it was influenced by the ancient Yemeni, Syro-Hellenistic, Jewish, and Iranian cultures. A characteristic element of the pre-Islamic culture of this period (the so-called jahiliyya) was the developed oral folk literature. The formation of A. to. itself refers to the period of the emergence of Islam and (7th century) and the creation of the Caliphate, which, as a result of the Arab conquests (See Arab conquests), turned into a huge state. The state-political community founded by the Arabs, supplemented by a religious and, in most regions, by a linguistic community, created the conditions for the emergence of common forms of cultural life for the peoples of the Caliphate. In the early stages, the formation of the Islamic culture was mainly a process of assimilation, reassessment, and creative development in the new ideological and sociopolitical conditions (Islam and the Caliphate) of the heritage of the cultures of the conquered peoples (ancient Greek, Hellenistic-Roman, Aramaic, Iranian, etc.) . The Arabs themselves gave A. to. such components as the religion of Islam, the Arabic language and the tradition of Bedouin poetry. A significant contribution to A. to. was made by the peoples who, having adopted Islam, retained their national, and then revived their state independence (the peoples of Central Asia, Iran, Transcaucasia). An important role was also played by the part of the population of the Caliphate that did not accept Islam (Christian Syrians, Jews, Zoroastrian Persians, representatives of the Gnostic sects of Asia Minor); their activities (especially the Nestorian Syrians and the Sabies of Harran) are connected, in particular, with the spread of philosophical and ethical ideas and the scientific heritage of antiquity and Hellenism. In the 8th-9th centuries. many scientific and literary monuments of antiquity were translated into Arabic, including Greek, Syrian, Middle Persian and Indian. In translations and adaptations, they became part of the Arabic script and contributed to the establishment of a successive connection with the culture of the Hellenistic world, and through it - with ancient and ancient Eastern civilization.

From the end of the 7th c. until the middle of the 8th c. Along with Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads, Mecca and Medina in Arabia and Kufa and Basra in Iraq were the main centers that determined the formation of A. to. Religious and philosophical ideas, the first achievements of science, the canons of Arabic poetry, examples of architecture, etc. received distribution and further development in the provinces of the Umayyad Caliphate, over a vast territory from the Pyrenees to the river. Ind.

With the formation of the Abbasid caliphate (See Abbasids) (750) The center of A. to. in the east of the Caliphate moved from Syria to Iraq, to Baghdad, founded in 762, which for almost three centuries was the center of the best cultural forces of the Muslim East. In the 9th-10th centuries. A. to. has reached the highest flourishing. Its achievements have enriched the culture of many peoples, in particular the peoples of medieval Europe, and have made an outstanding contribution to world culture. This applies primarily to the development of philosophy, medicine, mathematics, astronomy, geographical knowledge, philological and historical disciplines, chemistry, and mineralogy. Remarkable monuments mark the development of material culture and art (architecture, artistic craft). The division of branches of knowledge in A. to. for it, as for other cultures of the Middle Ages, the absence of a clear differentiation of sciences and the encyclopedic nature of the education of most of the figures of A. k. are typical. A philosopher and mathematician was often a prominent historian, physician, geographer, poet, and philologist.

An important factor in the flourishing of A. to. was that the development of science and literature was the property of all the peoples of the Caliphate (both Arabs and non-Arabs). The enrichment of A. to. contributed to the wide opportunities for communication and mutual exchange of cultural achievements between the peoples of the Muslim East, as well as lively ties with many countries of the East and Europe.

The disintegration of the Abbasid caliphate (mid-10th century) in connection with the formation of independent states on its territory led to a narrowing of the sphere of distribution of the arabesque and a gradual decrease in its role in the overall development of world culture. In Muslim Spain, which seceded from the Abbasid Caliphate as early as the 8th century, the so-called independent development began. Arab-Spanish culture. In the eastern provinces of the Caliphate at the end of the 9th c. centers of Iranian cultural and national revival are formed. The Persian language displaces the Arabic language, first from literature and poetry, and then from some of the humanities (history, geography, etc.). The Arabic language retained its significance here as the language of the Koran, religious and canonical (law, theology) and a number of natural sciences (medicine, mathematics, astronomy, chemistry), as well as philosophy. The centers of A. to. move to Syria, Egypt, Spain.

All in. In Africa, under the Fatimids (See Fatimids) (10–12 centuries) and the Ayyubids (See Ayyubids) (12–13 centuries), the development of the best traditions of A. k. in the field of science, literature, art, and material culture continued, although with less influence on the overall progress of the culture of the peoples of the Muslim East than in the 8th - 1st half of the 10th centuries. By the end of the 10th c. Baghdad ceded the leading role to Cairo.

The value of A. to. 8-10 centuries. in the history of world culture was determined by the discovery by its creators of new means of scientific, religious-philosophical and artistic knowledge of the world and man. The main efforts of the figures of A. to. subsequent periods were directed mainly to systematization and detailing of this heritage.

Although the scientific and aesthetic traditions of A. to. were not interrupted, but from the 2nd half of the 13th century. The epigone trend, which is compilative in science and imitative in literature, predominated in the work of A. k. Separate exceptions could not affect the general state of spiritual stagnation and the ever more noticeable lag in the development of A. to. from the pace of cultural progress in other countries of the Muslim East (Iran, Middle Asia in the 14th and 15th centuries, Ottoman Turkey in the 16th century). ) and in Europe.

The Arab-Spanish civilization experienced a brilliant flowering in the 10th-15th centuries. Its centers were Cordoba, Seville, Malaga and Granada. The greatest advances were made in astronomy, mathematics, chemistry and medicine. The development of the progressive line of Arabic philosophy also continued here [al-Farabi, about 870 - about 950; Ibn Sina (Avicenna), 980-1037], presented by the works of Ibn Rushd (Averroes, 1126-1198). In poetry and literature, works were created that are among the best artistic monuments of A. to. Monuments of Hispano-Moorish architecture and applied art have gained worldwide fame (see Mauritanian art).

A major achievement of A. k. of the late Middle Ages was the creation by the historian and sociologist Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406) historical and philosophical theory of social development.

In the 16th century Arab countries turned into provinces of the Ottoman Empire. A. k. fell into decline, although even during this period the old cultural centers of Syria, Iraq and Egypt traditionally retained an attractive force for Muslim scholars.

A qualitatively new period in the development of A. to. begins with the first half of the 19th century. In the context of the economic and political revival of the Arab countries in modern times, under the conditions of the beginning of the development of the national liberation movement and, finally, the formation of independent Arab states, the formation of modern A. to., mainly within the framework of each of the Arab countries. (See relevant sections in articles on individual Arab countries.)

Exact and natural sciences. The center for the development of natural sciences in the Caliphate was originally the territory of Syria and partly the South-West. Iran. Here was the beginning of translations into Arabic and commenting on the works of ancient authors. Translations from Greek and Syriac, which introduced scholars of Islamic countries to a significant part of ancient scientific literature, in many cases were the only sources according to which Zap. Europe could get acquainted with ancient science. For example, Heron's "Mechanics" and many treatises of Archimedes have come down to us only in Arabic translation. Through the carriers of A. to. many technical innovations (compass, oblique sail, etc.) entered European use, some of them were adopted from China and India.

9th-11th centuries - a period of rapid development of science in the Caliphate. Baghdad is turning into a major scientific center with schools and libraries. Along with the creation of a huge translated literature and comments on it, a scientific direction is already beginning to take shape, closely connected with the solution of applied problems and practical problems of construction, land surveying, and trade. Astronomy and mathematics, mineralogy, and descriptive geography are developing intensively.

In connection with the collapse of the Caliphate into separate states (10th century), along with Baghdad, new scientific centers arose: Damascus and Aleppo (Aleppo) in Syria, Cairo in Egypt, Maragha in Azerbaijan, Samarkand in Middle East. Asia, Ghazni in Afghanistan, as well as the centers of Spanish-Arab culture - Cordoba, and then Seville and Granada. At various times, Bukhara and Isfahan were major scientific centers, where from the end of the 11th century. Persian and Tajik poet and scientist Omar Khayyam worked at the observatory (about 1048 - after 1122), who wrote his scientific treatises in Arabic. In Cairo since the beginning of the 11th century. the “House of Knowledge” functioned, in which the astronomer Ibn Yunus worked (950--1009) and mathematician and physicist Ibn al-Haytham (about 965-1039); in 1004 an observatory was built here.

In addition to the Greek heritage, the Indian scientific tradition also had a great influence on the formation of mathematics in the countries of Islam. The decimal positional number system with the use of zero, which originates from Indian mathematics, has become widespread. The first work in Arabic devoted to arithmetic is a treatise by the leading representative of the Baghdad school, al-Khwarizmi (ninth century). In the 15th century The Samarkand scientist al-Kashi introduced decimal fractions and described the rules for working with them. In the writings of Abu-l-Vefa (940-998), the Central Asian scholar al-Biruni (973-1048, according to other sources - after 1050), Omar Khayyam, Nasiraddin Tui (1201-80, according to other sources - 1274 or 1277), Kashi developed and systematized methods for extracting roots with natural indicators. The role of Khorezmi and Omar Khayyam in the creation of algebra as an independent mathematical discipline is extremely great. The algebraic treatise of Khorezmi contains a classification of quadratic equations and methods for their solutions; Omar Khayyam's treatise - the theory and classification of cubic equations. The computational methods of Viruni, Kashi, and others have been significantly improved.

Of great interest are the geometric treatise of the brothers “sons of Musa” (“banu Musa”) of the 9th century, the writings of Abu-l-Vefa on practical geometry, the treatises of Ibn Qurra (See Ibn Qurra) (about 836-901), the treatise of Ibn al- Khaytham on the quadratures of conic sections and the cubature of bodies obtained from their rotation, the studies of al-Nairizi (9-10 centuries), Ibn Qurra, Ibn al-Khaytham, Omar Khayyam, Tuei and others on the theory of parallel lines.

The mathematicians of the countries of Islam turned plane and spherical trigonometry from an auxiliary section of astronomy into an independent mathematical discipline. In the works of Khorezmi, al-Marwazi, al-Battani, Biruni, Nasiraddin Tuya, all six trigonometric lines in a circle were introduced, dependencies between trigonometric functions were established, all cases of solving spherical triangles were studied, the most important theorems of trigonometry were obtained, various trigonometric tables were compiled, which differed in great accuracy.

Astronomy has made significant progress. Initially, the translation and commentary of the works of Ptolemy and Indian astronomical writings - siddhanta - were made. The center of translation activity was the "House of Wisdom" and its observatory in Baghdad. Translations of Indian astronomical treatises were made by al-Fazari, father (died about 777) and son (died about 796), and Yaqub ibn Tariq (died about 96). Starting from the Greek methods of modeling the movement of celestial bodies and the Indian calculation rules, Arab astronomers developed methods for determining the coordinates of the luminaries on the celestial sphere, as well as rules for the transition from one of the three used coordinate systems to another. Even treatises on astrology contained elements of important scientific knowledge. Zijs - collections of tables and calculation rules of spherical astronomy - were widely used. About 100 zijs from the 13th-15th centuries have come down to us. About 20 of them were compiled on the basis of the authors' own observations in the observatories of many cities: Biruni in Ghazni, Battani in Raqqa, Ibn Yunus in Cairo, Nasiraddin Tuei in Maraga, Kashi in Samarkand, and others. Arab astronomers achieved considerable accuracy in measuring the inclination of the ecliptic. Under Caliph Mamun (ninth century), the degree of the meridian was measured to determine the size of the globe.

Further development of the heritage of ancient mechanics continued [Ibn Qurra's treatise on lever balances - korastun; treatises of Biruni, Omar Khayyam, al-Khazini (12th century) on determining the specific gravity of metals and minerals]. The cycle of works on general questions of mechanics begins with the translation and commentary on the works of Aristotle. Among the commentators on the natural science writings of Aristotle were Biruni and Ibn Sina.

Many scientists worked in the field of mineralogy [the works of Biruni, Khazini, scientist and doctor ar-Razi].

Information on physics, in particular atmospheric physics and geophysics, is contained in the "Canon of Masud", "Mineralogy" by Biruni, in the "Book of Knowledge" by Ibn Sina. "Optics" of Ibn al-Haytham was widely known in the West. Europe.

Great advances have been made in medicine. The "Canon of Medicine" by Ibn Sina has long been the main guide in medical practice both in the medieval East and in the West. Europe. Among the works of Biruni there is a treatise on pharmacology. Known for the medical knowledge of ar-Razi (864-925). Questions of surgery, ophthalmology, therapy, psychiatry were developed.

Geography. In terms of the abundance of geographical information, the variety of genres and the number of works of Arabic geography, literature has no analogy in medieval geography. Arab geographers and travelers left a description of the entire Muslim East, as well as a number of countries, including Europe, North. and Center. Africa, East coast. Africa and Asia up to Korea, the islands of the Malay Archipelago. Their works are the most important, and sometimes the only evidence of many peoples of the Middle Ages. Characteristic of the Arab geographical science is that in its theoretical constructions it proceeded, contrary to the real information it has accumulated about the geography of the Earth, from the Ptolemaic picture of the world and its geographical theory. Cartographic material usually reproduced Ptolemy's maps or schematic maps, dating back to ancient Iranian prototypes.

The geographical representations of the pre-Islamic Arabs are reflected in ancient poetry and the Koran. Appearance at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. translations and processing of the astronomical and geographical works of ancient authors, especially Ptolemy, laid the foundation for Arabic scientific geography, which applied the calculation rules and tables of spherical astronomy. The highest achievement of this branch of Arabic geography, along with the works of Battani and Khorezmi, are the astronomical-geographical and geodetic works of Biruni. In the 9th century the first samples of descriptive geography also appeared [the works of Ibn Khordadbeh a (about 820 - about 912/913), Kudama ibn Jafar (1st half of the 10th century), al-Yakubi (died 897 or 905)], as well as travel stories containing fantastic and real information about countries and peoples outside the Caliphate (collection of Abu Zayd al-Sirafi, early 10th century; works by Buzurg ibn Shahriyar and others). The genre of travel descriptions developed further (notes by Ibn Fadlan a, 10th century, Abu Dulaf, 10th century; travel diaries of Abu Hamid al-Garnati, died 1170, Ibn Jubair a, died 1217, and Ibn Battuta (See), 1304-1377, description of the journey to Russia of Patriarch Macarius of Antioch, etc.).

The heyday of Arabic geographical literature falls on the 10th century. Particularly significant were the works of representatives of the classical school of Arabic geography, devoted to the description of trade routes and regions of the Muslim world and containing the richest geographical, historical and cultural material (works of al-Istakhri, Ibn Haukal, 10th century, al-Muqaddasi, 946/947 - about 1000 ). B 11-14 centuries. genres of geographical dictionaries and general descriptions of the Universe arose - cosmographies that summarized the previously accumulated geographical material (dictionaries of Yakut a, 1179-1229, al-Bakri, died 1094, al-Qazvini cosmography, died 1283, ad-Dimashki, died 1327, Abu-l -feeds). In Europe, al-Idrisi (1100-1165 or 1161) received the greatest fame. His writings with 70 maps were considered the best geographical treatise in the Middle Ages. In addition to describing the Muslim East, it contains a variety of information about the countries and peoples of the Zap. and Vost. Europe. The subsequent development of geography proceeded mainly along the lines of creating extensive compilations, especially cosmographies and historical and topographic descriptions of individual cities and countries (for example, the works of al-Makrizi). Of great value are the geographical sections in the works of al-Nuwayri, al-Umari, al-Kalkashandi, and others. The works of the pilot Vasco da Gama, Ibn Majid a (15th century) and al-Mehri (16th century BC), were a major contribution to Arabic geographical science. ), summarizing the theory and centuries-old practice of Arab navigation.

Philosophy. The main content of the history of medieval Arab philosophy was the struggle between the Eastern Peripatetics (see Peripatetic School), who proceeded from the Hellenistic heritage, and the supporters of religious-idealistic teachings. The prehistory of the emergence of proper philosophical thought in the Arab East dates back to the second half of the 8th century. and is associated with the Mu'tazilites (See Mu'tazilites), the early representatives of rational theology (kalam), who, starting with a discussion of questions about divine Attributes and free will, ended up developing concepts that not only went beyond religious issues, but also undermined faith in some basic tenets of Islam. Thus, consistently pursuing the idea of Monotheism, the Mu'tazilites rejected the existence of positive attributes in God that complemented his essence; denying in it, in particular, the attribute of speech, they rejected the idea of the eternity of the Qur'an and, on this basis, concluded that its allegorical interpretation was admissible. Mu'tazilites developed the concept of reason as the only measure of truth and the position of the creator's inability to change the natural order of things. The idea of the atomic structure of the world was widespread among the Mu'tazilites. Thus, on the one hand, they laid the foundation for rational geology, on the other hand, they cleared the ground for the emergence of a purely philosophical free-thinking of the Peripatetics.

As a reaction to the ideas of the Mutazilites, the doctrine of the Asharis (followers of al-Ashari, 873 or 874 - 935/936) developed, who directed rational theology into the mainstream of the philosophical defense of the dogmas of divine providence and miracles (it is with this doctrine that the term "kalam" is often associated and the main its representatives are called mutakallims). According to the teachings of the Asharis, nature turned out to be a heap of atoms and their qualities, unrelated to each other and instantly recreated by God; in the world, they argued, there are no causal relationships, because the Almighty is able at any moment to give any object any form and any movement.

In opposition to both the speculations of theologians and the teachings of the Peripatetics, Sufism developed. Using together with the elements of the Muslim worldview the ideas of Gnosticism and Neoplatonism, the Sufis developed the doctrine of the ways leading a person through the renunciation of worldly passions and contemplation of God to the contemplation of God in mystical intuition and the final merger with him. At the same time, at some stages of its development, Sufi ideas were subjected to interpretations in the spirit of naturalistic Pantheism.

Sufi mysticism, at first subjected to persecution by the orthodox clergy, was legitimized by al-Ghazali (1059-1111), the greatest representative of religious idealistic philosophy. In his criticism of the "heretical" and "opposite" views of the Peripatetics, Ghazali defended, along with mystical Sufism, the positions of the Asharis, refusing, however, to accept their atomistic theory. One of the most influential representatives of Sufism can also be considered Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240).

Eastern peripatetism was based on the philosophy of Aristotle, which passed to the Arabs through Syrian translators, partly in the interpretation of the Athenian and Alexandrian schools, as well as other ancient teachings, in particular the political theory of Plato. The interpretations of Aristotle by the Eastern Peripatetics opened the way for atheistic and even materialistic conceptions. Thus, the proposition about dual truth, which was already hidden in the teachings of the Mu'tazilites, presupposed allegorical interpretations of the tenets of Islam.

The founder of Eastern peripatetism was al-Kindi (about 800 - 879), who was the first in Arabic philosophy to outline the content of the main works of Aristotle. He was the first to present (on the basis of the classification of intellects dating back to Alexander of Aphrodisias) rational knowledge as the attachment of the individual's mind to the universal, deities, mind. The deism of Kindi, his idea of God as a faceless "remote cause", developed within the framework of al-Farabi's neoplatonic theory of emanation. The ontological and epistemological ideas of Farabi were deepened and detailed by the greatest thinker of the Middle Ages, Ibn Sina, who asserted the eternity of matter and the independence of particular phenomena of life from divine providence.

In the 12th century the center of philosophical thought moved to the west of the Muslim world—to Spain. Here in Andalusia, similar humanistic themes are being developed by Ibn Baja, who reflects on the ability of a person through purely intellectual perfection, without mystical insight, to achieve complete happiness and merge with an active mind, and Ibn Tufayl, in a philosophical robinsonade, describing the history of the development and knowledge of nature by mankind, setting out simultaneously in allegorical form the concept of dual truth. However, Andalusian philosophy, and with it all medieval Arab philosophy, reaches its peak in the work of Ibn Rushd, who defended the ideas of peripatetism from the attacks of the Asharis and Ghazali and created an independent philosophical doctrine. Rejecting the teachings of Ibn Sina about the introduction of forms into matter from the outside, Ibn Rushd came up with the thesis about the immanence of the forms of matter itself. He also denied the immortality of individual souls, considering only the human intellect to be eternal, joining the active divine mind, which embodies the ultimate goal of human knowledge. A major role in the history of medieval philosophy was played by the development of the concept of dual truth by Ibn Rushd.

Another major thinker of the Arab West was Ibn Khaldun, who is rightfully considered one of the founders of the philosophy of history.

Arab philosophy found a second life in Europe - in the activities of the Averroists (followers of Ibn Rushd, see Averroism) and other fighters against the official ideology of Catholicism.

Historical science. Arabic (Arabic-language) historiography as an independent discipline stood out at the turn of the 8th-9th centuries. The first records of historical content date back to the end of the 7th century. The material for the early monuments of historical literature in Arabic was the historical and genealogical traditions of the Arab tribes, semi-legendary reports about pre-Islamic states in the South. Arabia and about the Arab principalities in Syria (Ghassanids) and Iraq (Lahmids), as well as religious and historical legends about the emergence and spread of Islam, especially about the activities of Muhammad and his companions. The scheme of world history adopted in Arab historiography was formed under the influence of the Koranic idea of the past as a successive series of prophetic missions, and the constructions of Muslim genealogists and exegetes of the 7th-8th centuries, who connected the genealogical tree of the Arabs with the biblical "table of peoples". A significant role in the creation of historiography was played by the development of astronomical knowledge (establishing the chronology of world history) and the use of materials from Iranian historical and epic tradition (translations of the "Book of Kings" of Sasanian Iran), as well as apocryphal Judeo-Christian traditions. Medieval Arabic historiography proceeds from the theological interpretation of the course of world history as the realization of the divine plan for the human race. At the same time, she recognizes the responsibility of a person for his actions and sees the task of the historian in teaching by historical experience. The idea of the didactic value of history, accepted by most Muslim historians, was especially clearly formulated by Ibn Miskawayh (died 1030). Arab historians did not go beyond narrative history, and only Ibn Khaldun made an attempt to proceed to the presentation of historical events in their causal connection, having developed an original doctrine of the general laws of the development of human society.

The forerunners of professional Arab historians were connoisseurs and collectors of genealogies and oral tribal traditions. These materials were systematized by Muhammad al-Kalbi (died 763), supplemented and written down by his son Hisham (died about 819). In addition to the monumental collection of genealogies of the Arabs by Hisham al-Kalbi, similar collections were compiled by Muarrijas-Sadusi (died 811), Suhaym ibn Hafs (died 806), Musab al-Zubairi (died 851), Zubair ibn Bakkar (died 870), Ibn Hazm (died 1030), al-Kalkashandi (1355-1418), and others. The largest figure in the initial period of Arabic historiography was Muhammad al-Zuhri (died 741/42), who combined the collection of genealogies and tribal traditions with an interest in the political history of the Caliphate. He owns one of the first records of legends about the military campaigns of Muhammad (the so-called maghazi). The first large historical work in Arabic (the history of the ancient prophets and the life of Muhammad) by Ibn Ishaq (circa 704-768 or 767) served as a model for subsequent writings on this topic. The most significant are the works of al-Waqidi (747-823), Ibn Sada (died 845), later compilations of Ibn Said al-Nas, Nuraddin al-Halabi, and others. They are adjoined by the hagiographic literature popular in the Middle Ages, mostly fantastic stories about the prophets and Muslim saints.

For the 2nd half of the 8th - the middle of the 9th centuries. characteristic is the predominance of historical works devoted to individual events, mainly from the history of the Arab conquests and civil wars in the Caliphate of the 7th - early 8th centuries. [Abu Mikhnaf (died 774), Abu Ubaida (died about 824) and especially al-Madaini (died about the middle of the ninth century)]. Iraq became the center of Arab historiography for a long time. From the 2nd half of the 9th c. there are works that combine the accumulated material into a coherent historical narrative. The most significant were the works of al-Baladhuri (about 820 - about 892); Abu Hanif ad-Dinaveri (See Abu Hanifa ad-Dinaveri) (died about 895) and al-Yakubi on world history, which became the leading genre of historiography during its heyday (9th - 1st half of the 11th centuries). Compiled more often in the form of annals, they contained an overview of world history from the creation of the world, the initial history of the Muslim community, a description of the Arab conquests and the political history of the Caliphate (the reign of the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties). The largest work of this genre is the multi-volume "History of the Prophets and Kings" by al-Tabari (838 or 839-923). The general history of al-Masudi (died 956 or 957), Hamza al-Isfahani (See. Hamza al-Isfahani) (died in the second half of the 10th century), Ibn Miskawayh, and later Ibn al-Asir a ( 1160 - 1233 or 1234), Ibn Khaldun and other historians of the 9th-10th centuries. is distinguished by the breadth of outlook, reflecting the encyclopedic nature of their interests and knowledge (especially Yakubi and Masudi, who collected material on the history and culture of peoples outside of Muslim countries).

In connection with the formation of local political self-consciousness in the states that developed on the territory of the Abbasid Caliphate, in historiography from the 2nd half of the 10th century. dynastic and local chronicles prevail, the authors of which are mainly court historiographers (usually official secretaries, viziers, etc.), and not historians-scientists. Biographical chronicles devoted to the history of secretaries, viziers (for example, al-Azhakhshiyari, died 943; Hilal al-Sabi. 969-1056), judges (Waki al-Qadi, died 918; al-Kindi, died 961; al-Khushani , died 971). Local historiography is represented by works on the history of individual cities, regions and provinces, for example, the history of Mecca - al-Azraki (died about 858), Baghdad - Ibn Abu Tahir Tayfur (819/20 - 893), Egypt - Ibn Abd al-Hakam (about 798 -871), Muslim Spain - Abd al-Malik ibn Habib (about 796-853). The historical encyclopedia of the Yemenite historian al-Hamdani (died in the second half of the 10th century) deserves special attention. Arabia. In more recent times, in writings of this kind, the main attention is given to the biographies of local political and religious figures and cultural figures, and many of these biographical works are characterized by the combination of annals with political biography. Such are the history of Baghdad - al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002-71), Damascus - al-Qalanisi (died 1160) and Ibn Asakir a (1105-1176), Aleppo (Aleppo) - Ibn al-Adima (1192-1262), Granada - Ibn al-Khatib (1313-1374). Dynastic history, begun by the works of Ibrahim al-Sabi (died 994) on the history of the Buyids (See Buyids) and al-Utbi (961-1022, according to other sources, died 1036 or 1040) on the history of the Ghaznavids (See Ghaznavids), received a special development in the 12th-13th centuries, mainly in Syria, where the center of historical science moved. The local Zengid and Ayyubid dynasties found their historiographers in the person of Imad-ad-din al-Isfahani (1125-1201), Ibn Shaddad (1145-1234), Abu Shama (1203-1268) and especially Ibn Wasil (1207-1298). General histories were also created here (Abu-l-Fida, 1273-1331; al-Dhahabi, 1274-1353 or 1347; Ibn Kathir, about 1300-1373, etc.). In the 15-16 centuries. the leading place in Arab historiography was occupied by Egyptian historians, authors of works on the history of the Mamluks (See Mamluks), historical encyclopedias (an-Nuwayri, 1279-1332) and general chronicles (Ibn al-Furat, 1334-1405) and especially a galaxy of polyhistorian historians , such as al-Makrizi (1364-1442), al-Aini (1361-1451), Abu-l-Mahasin Ibn Taghriberdi (1409 or 1410-1470) and as-Suyuti (1445-1505), who left multi-volume works on political, socio-economic and cultural history of Egypt.

One of the main places in Arabic historiography is occupied by biographical literature proper: general biographical dictionaries of Yakut, Ibn Khallikan (1211-1282) and al-Safadi (1296/97 - 1363), collections of biographies of figures in the field of philosophy, medicine and natural sciences of Ibn al- Kifti (1172-1248) and Ibn Abu Usaybi (1203-1270) and others. Historical writings in Arabic were written not only in Arabic, but also in other countries of the Muslim East, including India, Iran, Turkey and the East. Africa. The era of Turkish domination (16th - early 20th centuries) is represented mainly by epigone compilations on general and local history, biographical and historical-bibliographic collections. Of greatest value are the history of Andalusia by al-Maqkari (1591/92 - 1632) and the biographical work of the Egyptian historian al-Khafaji (died 1659).

Literature. Arabic literature is rooted in the oral literature of a tribal society on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Early records (8th-10th centuries) include: co. "Choose", or "Stung" ("Mullakat"), compiled by Ravi Hammad (694/695 - 772) (includes 7 masterpieces of seven poets); "Mufaddaliyat" and "Asmaiyat" of the philologists al-Mufaddal (died 786) and al-Asmai (died about 830); two anthologies "Valor" ("Ha-masa") belonging to Abu Tammam y (about 796-845) and al-Bukhturi (821-897); sofa of poets from the Khuzail tribe - "The Book of Poetry Criticism" by Ibn Kutaiba (died 889); "The Book of Explanation" by al-Jahiz; the anthology "Book of Songs" by Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani (See Abu-l-Faraj al-Isfahani) (897-967); sofas of individual poets and collections of proverbs.

Ancient Arabic literature is original, foreign influences in it are negligible. Most of all, it was cultivated among nomadic pastoralists (Bedouins), but it also became widespread among the semi-nomadic and sedentary population of agricultural oases and cities. The leading role in it was played by poetry, at the origins of which labor, lullabies, hunting, caravan songs can be traced; the genres of vilification of the enemy (hija), boasting (fahr), songs of revenge (cap), mourning lament, or elegy (rice), as well as elements of love and descriptive lyrics (nasib and wasf) developed very early. The beginnings of artistic prose date back to ancient times: oratory, stories about tribal battles (ayyam al-arab) and other memorable events.

Poetry of the 5th-7th centuries, when it flourished, became in Arabic literature a kind of standard of poetic language, metrics and aesthetic ideals, defining themes and artistic techniques for a long time.

The central figure in pre-Islamic poetry is the poet himself, who acts as a Bedouin, a patriot of his tribe. The idealized image of the Bedouin poet is revealed against the background of real pictures of nomadic life, combat and hunting scenes, views of the Arabian desert. The main literary forms of ancient Arabic poetry were the qasida and the amorphous fragment (kita, mukatta). A characteristic feature of Arabic poetry is the monorim; each verse, as a rule, consists of one sentence and is an independent semantic aesthetic unit. The language of ancient Arabic poetry is characterized by a colossal vocabulary, flexibility of syntactic constructions, and a variety of specific visual means.

Arab tradition has preserved the names of about 125 pre-Islamic poets (late 5th - 1st half of the 7th centuries): Imru-ul-Qays, who is credited with creating the classical type of qasida; Tarafa, author of the remarkable qasida-muallaki; Antara ibn Shaddad, singer of military prowess and love; Zuhair and Labid, considered the best exponents of the life wisdom and ethical ideals of the Bedouin society; Shanfara and Taabbata Sharran, who sang the free life of a lonely robber in the desert; Alqama, Urwa ibn al-Ward, Harith ibn Hilliza and Amr ibn Kulthum, who are the heroes and singers of their tribes; the first court eulogists - an-Nabiga, Abid ibn al-Abras and Hatim; the wandering poet al-Asha, famous for his satyrs and Bacchic verses; the poetess al-Khansa; Jewish poet Samaual and Christian Adi ibn Zaid, whose poems combine cheerful motives about wine with sad thoughts about the vanity of the world, etc.

The first monument of Arabic writing was the Koran, which contains the religious sermons of Muhammad, stories on biblical subjects, didactic speeches and legal provisions of the Islamic community and state. The influence of the Koran is felt in all subsequent Arabic literature. Muhammad and his followers at first opposed poetry as the usual form of expression of pagan ideology. For a short time, the development of poetry was weakened, only its traditional, artistic conventions were preserved, and the ideological content underwent minor changes under the influence of a new faith - Islam. Syria and Iraq became the center of poetry. At the court of the Umayyads, outstanding poets worked - al-Akhtal, al-Jarir, al-Farazdaq, etc.

New phenomena in the poetry of this period are observed in the aristocratic environment of the large urban centers of the Caliphate, where love lyrics were developed in the form of short poems. A prominent representative of this genre was Omar ibn Abi Rabia from Mecca (641 - about 712 or about 718). Other poets are also known in Mecca (Ibn Qays ar-Rukayat, Abu Dahbal), Medina (Ahwas) and Damascus (Caliph Walid II). In the Bedouin environment in Arabia, a galaxy of singers of ideal, or “Uzrit” (from the Uzra tribe) love singers emerged. The poet and his beloved made up an unchanging couple, dying of unsatisfied love. Later, romantic stories were written about famous couples (Jamil and Busaina, Majnun and Leila, Kusayir and Azza, etc.). The story of Majnun and Layla has gained worldwide fame.

From the middle of the 8th c. more and more participation in the creation of Arabic literature, along with the Arabs, is taken by representatives of the conquered peoples. In the Caliphate, interest in the study of Arabic antiquity increased, theories of language, style and metrics were developed, and the most important works of antiquity were translated into Arabic. For the development of prose, translations from the Middle Persian (Pahlavi) language were of particular importance. Ibn al-Mukaffa (executed around 759) translated Kalila and Dimna (See Kalila and Dimna), which goes back to the Indian collection Panchatantra, and the Middle Persian collection of epic legends and chronicles, Khwadai-namak (Book of Kings). Aban Lahiki (died 815) translated into Arabic verse Kalila and Dimna, books about Mazdak (see Mazdakism) and about Sinbad, etc. The influence of the Near Asian civilization, primarily Iranian, was also felt in poetry, which became predominantly urban. There was a certain renewal of Arabic poetry, expressed in the preference for a cumbersome qasida of short elegant poems with an independent theme and in a “new style” (badit), the main feature of which was the use of previously unknown images, tropes and comparisons. The founder of the "new style" was the poet and freethinker Bashshar ibn Burd (died 783). The love lyrics were continued in the erotic-hedonic direction by a group of poets at the Abbasid court (Muti ibn Iyas, Waliba ibn Hubab, Ibrahim al-Mausili and his son Ishak, Dibil, etc.). Among them stands out the magnificent master of verse Abu Nuwas (762-815). The innovator was Abu-l-Atahiya (died 825), who deliberately avoided traditional poetic conventions in his poems, imbued with ascetic moods and reflection. Gradually, the "new style" gained recognition and found its theorist in the person of Ibn al-Mu'tazza (861-908). But even then there were poets who supported the Qasida tradition, which was also influenced by the “new style”: Marwan ibn Abi Hafsa (721-97), Muslim ibn al-Walid (died 803) and especially poets of the 9th century. Abu Tammam and al-Bukhturi.

Great successes in the 8th-9th centuries. Arab prose reached the ground, the ground for which was prepared by records of folklore, the study of the Koran, translations of scientific literature from Syriac, Middle Persian and Greek. The historical literature that was emerging at that time included traditions, legends and descriptions of individual events, and geographical works contained stories of merchants and travelers about distant lands. Artistic prose was also enriched with epistolary and speech styles: in business correspondence, oratory and sermons, some authors achieved great expressiveness and skill. A mixture of stories on various subjects and colorful cognitive and didactic material are numerous works of the great Arab prose writers al-Jahiz a (767-868) and Ibn Kutaiba (828 - about 889), who systematized a large literary material in "Sources of News" (10 books). according to the thematic principle: about power, about war, about friendship, etc. This work has become a subject of imitation. In the 9th century an Arabic translation of the Persian collection “A Thousand Tales” (“Khezar Afsane”) appeared - the prototype of the collection “A Thousand and One Nights”.

The collapse of the Caliphate contributed to the decentralization of literature. The most important of the local literary centers of the 10th century. became the city of Aleppo (Aleppo). Here, at the court of Hamdanid Sayf ad-Daula, lived the panegyric poet al-Mutanabbi (915-965). His laudatory and satirical qasidas are saturated with stylistic embellishments, refined metaphors, hyperbole and similes; in finishing the verse, he achieved sophisticated craftsmanship. In the 11th century the poet and thinker Abu-l-Ala al-Maarri (973-1057) lived in Syria. Starting with the imitation of Mutanabbi, he further improved the technique of verse by introducing complicated double rhymes. Prominent prose writers of the 10th century. were Abu Hayyan at-Tawhidi (died 1009) and at-Tanukhi (940-994). Rhymed prose became widespread in secular literature. Abu Bakr al-Khwarizmi (died 993) wrote the witty "Messages" ("Rasa'il") in this form, and Badi al-Zaman al-Hamadani (died 1007) created an original genre - maqama, which is considered the highest achievement of Arabic prose. Maqam Hamadani compiled a cycle of 50 picaresque short stories, or stories about the adventures and reincarnations of a quirky vagabond. Maqams penetrated into literature from urban folklore. However, while Hamadani's Arabic prose retained its liveliness and spontaneity, its many imitators (including al-Hariri, 1054-1122) degenerated into stylization.

Arabic literature stood apart in Andalusia (Arab Spain), closely associated with the Maghreb. In the 8th-10th centuries. Culturally, Andalusia remained a province of the Caliphate; the norm for its poetry was the patterns that had developed in the east of the Caliphate. Andalusian poetry was represented by: the refined lyricist and author of the epic poem about the conquest of Spain by the Arabs al-Ghazal (770-864); compiler of the popular anthology "The Only Necklace" and author of anacreontic verses Ibn abd Rabbahi (860-940); Ibn Khani (died 972), and others, who wrote about 60 qasidas. However, gradually, not only did local color appear in Andalusian lyric poetry, but also the strophic forms of muwashshah (belted) and zajal (melody) arose, until then alien to Arabic poetry. They were born in the common people as a result of the interaction of the culture of the Arabs, Berbers and the local Romanesque population. Muwashshah, first mentioned at the end of the 10th century, penetrated into literature and spread to the east of the Caliphate, and by the 13th century. took on frozen forms, becoming the subject of formalistic exercises. Zajal avoided stylization and remained a favorite folk genre in Muslim and Christian Spain, found its way to other Arab countries and, apparently, influenced the development of early Provençal poetry. The divan of the largest representative of this genre, Ibn Kuzman (circa 1080-1160), has been preserved. The heyday of Andalusian poetry in literary Arabic falls on the 11th century, when the Caliphate of Cordoba broke up into several emirates. Court literary circles arose in each of them. Panegyric, erotic and Bacchic poetry prevailed everywhere. Seville became a major center with its poets-patrons al-Mu'tadid (1012-1069) and al-Mu'tamid (1040-1095). The latter ended his life in Morocco while in captivity; his voluntary companion in captivity was the famous lyric poet from Sicily, Ibn Hamdis (1055-1132). The last major Arabic poet of Cordoba, Ibn Zaydun (1003-1071), lived in Seville. Many Andalusian poets of the 11th-13th centuries. famous for their elegies on the fall of Arab dynasties and cities under the blows of the Reconquista (See Reconquista) (Ibn Abdun, al-Wakashi, Ibn Khafaja, Salih ar-Rondi, and others). In prose, Ibn Hazm stands out, who created the "Necklace of the Dove" - a kind of treatise on love, and Ibn Tufayl (about 1110-1185), the author of the philosophical novel "Alive, son of the awake".

From the middle of the 11th century, despite its quantitative growth, Arabic literature bears the stamp of decline. In poetry, mysticism begins to predominate, in prose - didactics. Mystical poetry is characterized by a combination of Bacchic and erotic motifs with ecstatic appeals to the deity. Its prominent representatives were the Andalusians Ibn al-Arabi (1165-1240), ash-Shushtari (died 1269) and the Egyptian Omar ibn al-Farid (1182-1235). The Sicilian Ibn Zafar (died 1169) took timid steps towards the creation of historical short stories. The Syrian emir Usama ibn Munkiz (1095-1188) wrote the only artistic autobiography in medieval Arabic literature, The Book of Edification. Ibn Arabshah (1392-1450), taken by Timur from Baghdad to Samarkand, in his didactic anthology "Pleasant Fruit for Caliphs". reworked North Iranian fairy tales in an ornate style.

With the decline of written literature, which served the cultural and aesthetic needs of large feudal lords and a narrow circle of educated people, oral poetic creativity flourished. In Egypt and Syria, where the center of Arabic literature finally shifted after the Mongol invasion (13th century), the genres of muwashshah and zajal spread. Sufi poets and even the court poet Bahaaddin Zuhair (1187-1258) strove to write in a language close to the folk language; Ibn Daniyal (13th century) in Egypt recorded popular plays for the shadow theater. They became widespread in the 13th-15th centuries. and later peculiar folk art in the sira genre (lit. - “biography”), i.e., cycles of stories on heroic and love stories related to historical and fictional persons and events. European terminology classifies them as romances of chivalry. These works were performed by storytellers-actors in the streets and squares. The most important sires: about the poet-warrior of the 6th century. Antar and his beloved Abla, about the Mamluk sultan Baibars, about the resettlement of the Banu-Hilal tribe in Egypt and North. Africa, about Dhu-l-Khimm. Some of them began to take shape, apparently very early. People's memory carried them through the centuries, and the storytellers of each generation layered new episodes and details, introducing anachronisms and contradictions into them. The events of the era of the Crusades were reflected in the sirs (heroes usually perform feats in battles against the "infidels" - "Franks" or "Rooms"). The collection of fairy tales “A Thousand and One Nights” belongs to the same type of folk literature, which, along with folklore and literary materials, completely included a sira about Omar ibn al-Numan.

Arabic literature of the 16th-18th centuries, shackled by scholasticism and traditional frameworks, was of limited significance; only a continuous handwritten tradition is important, which has preserved many monuments of the past to this day.

Architecture, fine and decorative arts. The art of the Arab countries is complex in its origins. In South Arabia, they date back to the cultures of the Sabaean, Minean and Himyarite states (1st millennium BC - 6th century AD), associated with the Mediterranean and the East. Africa. Ancient traditions can be traced in the architecture of the tower-like houses of Hadhramawt and the multi-storey buildings of Yemen, the facades of which are decorated with a colored relief pattern. In Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt and the Maghreb, the styles of medieval Arabic art were also formed on a local basis, experiencing some influence from Iranian, Byzantine and other cultures.

Architecture. The main religious building of Islam was the mosque, where the followers of the prophet gathered for prayer. Mosques, consisting of a fenced courtyard and a colonnade (which marked the beginning of the "yard" or "column" type of mosque), in the 1st half of the 7th century. were created in Basra (635), Kufa (638) and Fustat (40s of the 7th century). The Arab column mosque received a high artistic solution in Damascus, the capital of the Umayyads: the builders of the Damascus mosque (beginning of the 8th century) perfectly used the local Hellenistic and Syro-Byzantine architectural traditions and decorated the building with polychrome mosaics depicting the architectural landscape. The mosques in Kairouan (Sidi Okba, 7th-9th centuries) and Cordoba (8th-10th centuries) are majestic. The columnar type remained for a long time the main one in the monumental religious architecture of the Arab countries (mosques: Ibn Tuluna in Cairo, 9th century; Mutawakkil in Samarra, 9th century; Hassan in Rabat and Kutubia in Marrakesh, both 12th century; Great Mosque in Algiers, 11th century, and others) and had an impact on the Muslim architecture of Iran, the Caucasus, Wed. Asia, India. In architecture, domed structures also developed, an early example of which is the octagonal mosque Kubbat as-Sahra in Jerusalem (687-691). In the future, various religious and memorial buildings were completed with domes, most often they were crowned with mausoleums over the graves of famous people.

Under the Umayyads, great secular construction was carried out: cities were fortified, country palaces and castles of the caliphs were erected (Mshatta, Quseir-Amra, Qasr al-Khair al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Khair ash-Sharqi, Khirbet Al-Mafjar), decorated with round sculpture, carvings, mosaics and wall paintings.

Under the Abbasids, great urban development work was carried out. Baghdad, founded in 762, like Hatra and Ctesiphon, was a city round in plan; a palace and a mosque were located in its center, and the perimeter was covered by a double ring of defensive walls. In Samarra (the capital of the Caliphate in 836-892), stretching along the river. Tiger, rectilinear layout prevailed; the ruins of huge palaces and houses of the nobility built of brick, which had rectangular courtyards and vaulted reception halls, the walls of which were covered with carved ornaments and polychrome paintings, have been preserved. The mosques of Samarra had ziggurat minarets.

A special school of Arabic architecture is represented by the buildings of Fatimid Cairo (founded in 969). The city walls erected from stone form a square in plan; several gates of the 11th century have been preserved, to which the main streets of the city led. Fortress architecture was distinguished by the expressiveness of simple monumental forms. Fatimid Cairo was decorated with palaces, caravanserais, baths, shops, residential buildings, as well as mosque buildings, from which the grandiose al-Hakim and al-Azhar have come down to us, as well as al-Akmar and al-Salih-Talai, decorated with elegant stone carvings. .

From the 13th century until the beginning of the 16th century. The architecture of Egypt and Syria was closely interconnected. A large fortification was carried out: citadels in Cairo, Aleppo (Aleppo), etc. In the monumental architecture of this time, the spatial principle that dominated the previous stage (the courtyard mosque) gave way to grandiose architectural volumes: over the smooth surface of powerful walls and large portals with deep niches rise tall drums carrying domes. The majestic buildings of the four-aivan are being built (see Ivan) type (previously known in Iran): the maristan (hospital) of Kalauna (13th century) and the mosque of Hasan (14th century) in Cairo, mosques and madrasahs (spiritual schools) in Damascus and other cities of Syria. Numerous domed mausoleums are being built, sometimes forming a picturesque ensemble (the Mamluk cemetery in Cairo, 15-16 centuries). To decorate the walls outside and in the interior, along with carving, inlay with multi-colored stone is widely used. In Iraq in the 15th-16th centuries. the decor uses colored glaze and gilding (mosques: Musa al-Kadima in Baghdad, Hussein in Karbala, Imam Ali in Najaf).

It flourished in the 10th-15th centuries. Arabic architecture of the Maghreb and Spain. In large cities (Rabat, Marrakesh, Fes, etc.), kasbahs were built - citadels, fortified with powerful walls with gates and towers, and medinas - trade and craft quarters. The large columned mosques of the Maghreb with multi-tiered, square minarets are distinguished by the abundance of intersecting naves, the richness of carved ornamentation (mosques in Tlemcen, Taza, etc.) and are magnificently decorated with carved wood, marble and mosaics of multi-colored stones, like numerous madrasahs 13-14 centuries in Marocco. In Spain, along with the mosque in Cordoba, other outstanding monuments of Arab architecture have been preserved: the La Giralda minaret, erected in Seville by the architect Jeber in 1184-96, the gate to Toledo, the Alhambra Palace in Granada - a masterpiece of Arabic architecture and decorative art 13- 15th century Arab architecture influenced the Romanesque and Gothic architecture of Spain ("Mudéjar style"), Sicily and other Mediterranean countries.

The capture of the Arab countries by the Ottoman Turks in the 16th century. brought forms of Ottoman architecture, especially into religious architecture. But in secular architecture, local building and artistic traditions continued to live and develop.

Decorative-applied and fine arts. In Arabic art, the principle of decorativeness, characteristic of the artistic thinking of the Middle Ages, was vividly embodied, giving rise to the richest ornament, special in each of the regions of the Arab world, but connected by general patterns of development. An arabesque (See arabesque), dating back to antique motifs, is a new type of pattern created by the Arabs, in which the mathematical rigor of construction is combined with free artistic fantasy. The epigraphic ornament was also developed - calligraphically executed inscriptions included in the decorative pattern.

Ornament and calligraphy, which were widely used in architectural decoration (carving on stone, wood, knocking), are also characteristic of applied art, which has reached a high flowering and especially fully expressed the decorative specifics of Arab art. Pottery was decorated with a colorful pattern: glazed household utensils in Mesopotamia (centers - Rakka, Samarra); vessels painted with golden chandeliers of different shades, made in Fatimid Egypt; Spanish-Moorish luster ceramics of the 14th-15th centuries, which had a great influence on European applied art. Arab patterned silk fabrics - Syrian, Egyptian, Moorish - also enjoyed world fame; Arabs also made pile carpets. The finest chasing, engraving and inlay of silver and gold are used to decorate artistic bronze items (bowls, jugs, incense burners and other utensils); products of the 12th-14th centuries are distinguished by special craftsmanship. Mosul in Iraq and some handicraft centers in Syria. The Syrian glass covered with the finest enamel painting and Egyptian products made of rock crystal, ivory, and expensive woods decorated with exquisite carved patterns were famous.

Art in the countries of Islam developed, interacting with religion in a complex way. Mosques, as well as the holy book of the Koran, were decorated with geometric, floral and epigraphic patterns. However, Islam, unlike Christianity and Buddhism, refused to make extensive use of fine arts to promote religious ideas. Moreover, in the so-called. authentic hadiths, legalized in the 9th century, contain a prohibition to portray living beings, and especially humans. Theologians of the 11th-13th centuries (Ghazali and others) these images were declared the gravest sin. However, artists throughout the Middle Ages depicted people and animals, real and mythological scenes. In the first centuries of Islam, while theology had not yet developed its aesthetic canons, the abundance of realistic paintings and sculptures in the interpretation of paintings and sculptures in the palaces of the Umayyads testified to the strength of pre-Islamic artistic traditions. In the future, the depiction in Arabic art is explained by the presence of essentially anti-clerical aesthetic views. For example, in the "Messages of the Brothers of Purity" (10th century), the art of artists is defined "as the imitation of the images of existing objects, both artificial and natural, both people and animals."

Fine art flourished in Egypt in the 10th-12th centuries: images of people and genre scenes adorned the walls of buildings in the city of Fustat, ceramic dishes and vases (master Saad and others), woven into the pattern of bone and wood carving (panels of the 11th century BC). from the Fatimid palace in Cairo, etc.), as well as linen and silk fabrics; Bronze vessels were made in the form of figures of animals and birds. Similar phenomena took place in the art of Syria and Mesopotamia in the 10th-14th centuries: court and other scenes are included in the exquisite chased ornament of bronze items with inlay, in the pattern of paintings on glass and ceramics.

A prominent place in the history of world art is occupied by the Arabic book miniature. In Egypt, a miniature of the 9th-10th centuries. (originating from the Faiyum) and 11-12 centuries. stylistically related to Coptic art. Byzantine influence is noticeable in the painting of Syrian miniatures. The art of book miniature reached great heights in Iraq in the 12th-13th centuries. There were several styles here. One of them (possibly northern Iraqi) is distinguished by lush and colorful court scenes; the other is represented by laconic illustrations in scientific treatises (for example, sheets from the "Pharmacology" of Dioscorides, copied by Abd Allah ibn Fadl in 1222, stored in various museums around the world). The true pride of the Iraqi school of miniaturists are full of lively observations, conveyed in expressive figurative language, resonant in colors, illustrations for Hariri's Maqams, which have come down in several manuscripts (the miniatures of the manuscript of 1237, the artist Yahya ibn Mahmud from Wasit, the National Library of Paris, and the manuscripts of the beginning 13th century, belonging to the Leningrad branch of the Institute of Oriental Studies). Miniatures experienced a new upsurge in Iraq at the end of the 14th century, when the outstanding artist Junaid Sultani, the author of miniatures in the “Khamsa” manuscript Khaju Kermani 1396, worked in Baghdad (British Museum, London).

The fine beginning was less developed in the art of the Arab West. However, decorative sculpture in the form of animals, patterns with motifs of living creatures, as well as miniatures were also created here (manuscript "The History of Bayad and Riyad", 13th century, Vatican Library).

Arab art as a whole was a bright, original phenomenon in the history of the world artistic culture the era of the Middle Ages. His influence extended to the entire Muslim world and went far beyond its borders.

Music. Arabic music was formed as a result of the fusion of Arabic art proper with the art of the conquered countries. The early, "Bedouin" period in its development is characterized by the unity of music and poetry. Information has been preserved about ancient Arab professional singer-poets (shairs), about song genres - khida (caravan songs), habab (horsemen's songs), about musical instruments - duff (small square tambourine), mizhar (primitive lute with a leather soundboard), rebab (a kind of single-string violin).

After the conquest of Iran, part of Byzantium and the establishment of dominance over Sr. In Asia and Egypt, the Arabs assimilated the traditions of more developed cultures (the foundations of Greek musical theory were adopted; under the influence of Persian and Byzantine melody, the Arabic scale expanded to two octaves, Iranian influences affected some Arabic modes and instruments). The heyday of classical Arabic music begins at the end of the 7th century. It is based on 7-step modes, in which, along with the main sounds, intermediate intervals are used - commas (less than 1/8 of a whole tone). The modal features of Arabic music determined a peculiar manner of singing, in which gliding (sliding from sound to sound) is widely used. Arabic music is characterized by flowery melismatics, which gives the music an original flavor. Classical Arabic music is predominantly vocal. The most common genre is the vocal-instrumental ensemble, in which the leading role belongs to the singer. The largest singers of the Umayyad period - Ibn Musajih, Muslim ibn Muhriz, the singer Jamila and her students were also famous. During the period of the Abbasid dynasty, musicians Ibrahim al-Mausili (742-804) and his son Ishak al-Mausili (767-850) - the founder of the Baghdad school, as well as Mansur Zalzal, stand out. Arab musical science has reached a high level. Among the prominent musical theorists of the Middle Ages: al-Kindi, who developed and applied to Arabic music the metaphysical doctrine of the “harmony of the Universe” of the Neoplatonists; al-Isfahani (897-967), author of the "Big Book of Songs"; Safi-ad-din Urmavi (circa 1230-1294), who wrote a treatise on acoustics and harmonic relations "Esh-Sharafiyya" - an outstanding work of medieval oriental music science. The most important information about the music of the East is contained in the works of al-Farabi - the author of the "Great Treatise on Music", Ibn Sina and others. In the Middle Ages, Arabic music had an impact on the musical art of Spain, Portugal, and on the formation of some European musical instruments.

In the history of great cultures, classical Arab-Muslim culture occupies one of the most important places. At one time, this highly developed, original culture flourished in the vast expanses from India to Spain, including the Middle and Middle East and North Africa. Its influence has been and is being felt now in many parts of the world; it was an important link between the cultures of antiquity and the medieval West, the uniqueness of this culture is due to the peculiarities of Islam, which is not just a world religion, but an integral culture - law and state, philosophy and art, religion and science, which have their own uniqueness. And although Islam is historically close to many European cultural traditions, a comparative analysis of these differences, which are not obvious at first glance, shows the greatest distance between Islam and the European standard and its certain similarity with Chinese religious and doctrinal norms.

Islam is one of the universal world religions, the religion of revelation, which grew up in the 7th century. from the traditions of such monotheistic religions as Christianity and Judaism, adopting many of their basic provisions and dogmas. Islam itself recognizes the essence of these religions as identical with its own dogma, however, human imperfection has led to the fact that Jews and Christians have misunderstood the meaning of the revelation of the same god. Only Prophet Mohammed came with true revelation, correcting the mistakes of his predecessors.

As far as, however, the initial principles of Islam are similar to the foundations of Christianity and Judaism, so much the development of the basic ideas of Islam went in completely different ways. Simple ideas, born among the nomads and merchants of the Arabian Peninsula, were overgrown with new layers in the conditions of developing feudalism in the Middle East. Therefore, Islam itself, being in its essence a religion, turned into the principles organizing the entire early world of the then societies subordinate to the power of the caliphate. Islam has become the law that determines the social structures and morality of society, the rationale for which is found in Holy Quran. Since Allah is absolute perfection, the morality and laws given by him have absolute truth, eternity and immutability and are suitable "for all times and peoples."

While Muhammad was alive, he ruled the Muslim community, but when he died, it turned out that the instructions contained in the Koran were far from enough to resolve all state and public issues - naturally, he could not leave instructions for all occasions. In this regard, two currents in Islam arose: Sunnism and Shiism, differing in the interpretation of the Sunnah. In a broad sense, the sunna - a set of customs and rules of behavior of the ancient community - meant the practice and theory of Muslim orthodoxy; it was transmitted orally and served as a supplement to the written law.

It can be said that under the banner of Islam, the Arab people began their great history full of success, created a vast empire, a brilliant Arab-Muslim civilization and culture. The Arabs became the heirs of such great states as Byzantium and Persia.

In later times, other peoples entered the orbit of Islam - Persians, Turks, Mongols, Indians and Malays, so that Islam became a world religion. Islam played a huge role in the life of these peoples, changing their spiritual appearance and creating a new historical era. Thus, a single, albeit consisting of many peoples, large “Muslim community” arose - the Ummah Islamiya, which, despite the heterogeneity of its followers, is characterized by a certain solidity. This is due to the fact that Islam had a strong influence on its adherents, forming in them a certain specific Muslim mentality, regardless of their previous folk, cultural and religious traditions.

In accordance with the hadith tradition attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, Islam from the very beginning strongly supported science and education, prescribing "the search for knowledge from the cradle to the grave."

It should be emphasized that Islam significantly contributed to the development of philosophy, art, the humanities and natural sciences, as well as the creation of a refined culture (it is no coincidence that the 7th-8th centuries are called the era of classicism). Caliphs, emirs and governors of various provinces of the colossal Muslim empire were inveterate guardians of science and philosophy, patrons of art and fine literature, especially poetry. They were the initiators and patrons of well-known scientific institutions - the then universities and academies of sciences, with which huge libraries for those times were associated, numbering many hundreds of thousands of volumes of religious and secular works.

An essential element of the Arab-Muslim culture is the Arabic language, which is inextricably linked with the Koran. After all, the holy book of Islam, according to devout Muslims, was given to the prophet Muhammad in a “revelation” in Arabic (and many of them believe that it is in this form that its original is stored near the throne of the Almighty

The Arabic language and the Koran are the two main elements of the emerging new Arab-Muslim civilization and culture: science, philosophy, art and other manifestations of Arab and Muslim culture bear the stamp of these two factors.

From the beginning of its development, in the classical era, in the centuries of brilliant development (IX-XII centuries) and in the post-classical era (XIII-XIV centuries), the Arab-Muslim culture was at a high level, leaving the then European science and culture far behind. Arabs, Persians and representatives of other Islamized peoples took part in the creation and development of this culture as members of a single great Muslim society. Its successful development was facilitated by the fact that the Arabic language was the only language used by all Muslim scholars, regardless of their origin, and not only the Arabs, when presenting their works. It was in this language that almost all scientific, philosophical and literary works were written, not to mention the religious and legal works that were created in the region of Islam in the classical era of the Arab-Muslim culture. It should be added that the Arabic alphabet was used as an ornamental motif in Muslim art and architecture, especially in sacred architecture.

First of all, it should be borne in mind that Islam was based on concern for the faithful in this earthly world, and various scientific disciplines provided significant assistance here. The exact sciences, mathematics and astronomy, as well as medicine and pharmacology were very useful for the development of civilization, because they raised the standard of living of the population and did not threaten the ideology of Islam. All this led to the development of scientific disciplines without any special obstacles, to the achievement of a high level by them.

In the field of exact sciences, the achievements of Arab scientists were enormous. It is well known that the Arabic counting system, whose roots go back to India, was adopted and spread in Europe. Arab scientists (Muhammed al-Khwarizmi and others) made a great contribution to the development of algebra, spherical trigonometry, mathematical physics, optics, astronomy, and other scientific disciplines. Astronomy and astrology have been very popular among the Arabs for a long time, even in the pre-Muslim era; accepted by Islam, they received wide support from the Muslim rulers.

Chemistry reached a high level of development among the Arabs. Jabar Ibn Hayyan from Kufa, the creator of the foundations of experimental chemistry, gained fame. He dealt not only with the problems of the theory of chemistry, but also in his numerous experimental studies sought to obtain data for practical application in the processes

steel smelting, textile and leather dyeing, glass production, etc. In general, it can be said that Arab scientists in the field of chemistry discovered sulfur oxide, nitric oxide, nitric silver and other compounds, as well as distillation and crystallization.

The Arabs had a very high level of medicine, its achievements in various fields fed European medicine for a long time. One of the first famous doctors al-Razi (IX century) was the greatest clinician in the world of Islam, many of his works are real medical encyclopedias. A major encyclopedia in the field of medicine is the "Canon of Medicine" by the famous Ibn Sina (Avicenna). The greatest surgeon of the Arab world, al-Zahrawi, raised surgery to the rank of an independent science, his most important treatise "Tashrif" laid the foundation for illustrated works on surgery. He began to use antiseptics in the treatment of wounds and skin lesions, invented threads for surgical sutures, as well as about 200 surgical instruments, which were subsequently used by surgeons in both the Muslim and Christian worlds. Another famous pioneer of medicine was Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar), one of the greatest Arab physicians in Spain (1094-1160). He was the first to describe inflammation of the lungs, stomach cancer, etc.; he is considered a harbinger of experimental medicine.

We also owe to Arab scientists the creation of pharmaceutics as a recognized profession, pharmacology has become an independent science, independent of medicine, although associated with it. They attached great importance to chemotherapy, many medicinal herbs of the Arabic pharmacopoeia are still used in treatment: knotweed, etc. Arab geographers and naturalists enriched zoology and botany, studying the flora and fauna of many countries.

The Arab art of healing knew water therapy, psychotherapy and a therapeutic diet. It should be noted that many hospitals were built in the Arab world, including special hospitals for the mentally ill; often these hospitals were associated with scientific institutions. Usually, in accordance with the tradition of Arab-Muslim construction, a mosque, a hospital and a school or other public institutions were erected in the new city, which contributed to the physical and spiritual health of a person. It can be said that the Arab scientists replenished the sum of human knowledge with new and original information discovered in the field of natural science and medicine, thereby enriching all of humanity.

Arab-Muslim culture did not create plastic arts - painting and sculpture in the European or ancient understanding of art. After all, Islam had a negative attitude to the image of any living creature in painting and sculpture, so they were represented by ornamental, abstract motifs. In other words, the equivalents of the plastic arts in the Arab-Muslim culture were artistic calligraphy and miniature painting. The art of calligraphy in the world of Islam was considered the noblest art, and calligraphers had their own "academies" and were highly respected. a sense of the fragility of the world, the capacity of thought and action, a sense of rhythm. Another typical example of Arab-Muslim culture is the arabesque, a specific Muslim ornament in which logic is connected with the living integrity of rhythm.

The contribution of the Arab-Muslim culture to the treasury of world culture is very significant. The achievements of Arabic science on a global scale have already been mentioned above. Existing for over a thousand years, from Spain to India, the art of Islam plays an important role in the art of the world, especially works of artistic craft and fabric.

It is impossible to overestimate the contribution of the Arab civilization to world culture.

Robert Blifolt (historian): "If it were not for the Arabs, modern European civilization would never have acquired the character that allowed it to overcome all phases of evolution; and although there is not a single sphere of human activity in which the decisive influence of Islamic culture would not be felt, nowhere it is not expressed as vividly as in the natural sciences and the scientific spirit. This spirit was introduced into the European world by the Arabs."

The historical destinies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires developed differently. The socio-economic and cultural level of the countries of the Eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East (most of them were part of the Byzantine Empire) in the early Middle Ages (until the second half of the 12th century) was higher than that of the countries of Europe. In the 7th century in the vast territories of the Near and Middle East, a centralized Arab state arises - the Arab Caliphate. The formation of a single political system from previously disparate regions on a new feudal basis and the rapid growth of the economy created favorable conditions for the development of science and culture in the medieval East.

United politically and economically, connected by the unity of religion and language (Arabic became not only the state language, but also the language of science and culture), the peoples of the Near and Middle East got the opportunity to exchange spiritual values more freely. Thanks to intensive translation activities already in the 9th century. in the Arabic-speaking world, all the main works of scientific thought of antiquity were published. The Arabs treated the ancient heritage with the greatest respect. So, in 823, Caliph al-Mamun demanded that the Byzantine king Michael II, who had been defeated by him, hand over a number of Greek manuscripts or their copies. Among them was received the "Almagest" by K. Ptolemy. The assimilation of a complex set of local cultural traditions and the cultural heritage of antiquity ensured the flourishing of Muslim culture.

The works of Aristotle were especially widespread in the East. The pinnacle of Arabic-speaking Aristotelianism was the work of Ibn-Rushd (in Europe he was called Averroes), who interpreted the works of Aristotle in the spirit of materialism and pantheism. Ibn-Rushd also developed the doctrine of the eternity of the material world, which, however, as Aristotle taught, is finite in space. Ibn Rushd sought to assert the complete independence of philosophy and science from theology, Muslim theology, to minimize the functions of God in relation to the world, believing that God influences only the general course of the world process, but not its particulars. In the teachings of Ibn-Rushd, nature is maximally independent of God and can create its own private, finite forms. Such a limitation of creationism created an ideological basis for affirming the ideals of natural science knowledge.

Ibn-Rushd also developed the "theory of two truths" - scientific-philosophical and theological. Both science (philosophy) and religion (theology) think primarily about God - the first and highest cause of everything that exists and is known. But they are quite different in the way they are explained. A more perfect way is given by science (and philosophy), based on logic and evidence. Religion (and theology) gives a figurative, sensual knowledge, a representation of God, containing many logical contradictions. Two meanings can be found in the Qur'an - literal and "internal": the first is comprehended by theology, the second - by science, philosophy. The theory of "two truths" contributed to the establishment of the philosophical premises of natural science knowledge.

Mathematical achievements

The Arabs significantly expanded the ancient system of mathematical knowledge. They borrowed from India and used the decimal positional system extensively. It penetrated the caravan routes to the Middle East in the Sassanid era (224-641), when Persia, Egypt and India experienced a period of cultural interaction. And already from the arithmetic treatise of al-Khwarizmi "On Indian numbers", translated in the XII century. into Latin, the decimal system became known in Europe.

The tradition of creating new computational techniques and special algorithms has also received significant development (typical of the Ancient East). So, for example, al-Kashi, using inscribed and circumscribed regular polygons, calculated the number π up to 17 correct signs.

Approximate root extraction methods were developed. For example, such a well-known technique in antiquity:

where T is an integer, was extended to the case of any natural exponent of the root:

They also knew the method of calculating the roots, which is now called the Ruffini-Horner method *: if

then the sequential calculation of the signs of the root is connected with finding the differences

* Cm.: Rybnikov K.A. History of mathematics. M., 1974. S. 99.

Arab mathematicians were also able to sum arithmetic and geometric progressions, including finding sums of the form:

Not limited to the methods of geometric algebra, Arab mathematicians boldly move on to operations on algebraic irrationalities. They created a unified concept of real numbers by combining rational numbers and relations and gradually blurred the line between rational and irrational numbers. In Europe, this idea was accepted only in the 16th century.

Arab mathematicians perfected methods for solving equations of the 2nd and 3rd degrees; solved certain types of equations of the 4th degree. In the treatise of al-Khwarizmi "The Book of Operations Jabr (Restoration) and Bondage (Bringing)", according to which European scientists in the XII century. began to get acquainted with algebra, systematic solutions of equations of the 1st and 2nd degree of the following types were contained:

The most significant achievement of the Arabs in algebra was Omar Khayyam's Treatise on Proofs of Problems, which was mainly devoted to cubic equations. Khayyam built a theory of cubic equations based on the geometric methods of the ancients. He classified all cubic equations with positive roots into 14 types; he solved each kind of equations by the corresponding construction. Khayyam tried to find a general rule for solving cubic equations, but without success.

If the individual rudimentary elements of spherical trigonometry were known to the ancient Greeks (for example, Ptolemy used the concept of “chord of an angle”), then trigonometry was created in a systematic form by Arab mathematicians. Already in the works of al-Battani there is a significant part of trigonometry, including tables of cotangent values for each degree.

The historical merit of medieval Arab mathematicians also consisted in the fact that they began deep research on the foundations of geometry. Thus, in the works of O. Khayyam and Nasiraddin at-Tusi, attempts were made to prove the postulate of parallels, based on the introduction of assumptions equivalent to this postulate (the sum of the interior angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles, etc.).

Physics and astronomy

Of the sections of mechanics, the most developed statics, which was facilitated by the conditions of the economic life of the medieval East. Intensive monetary circulation and trade, both domestic and international, required constant improvement of weighing methods, as well as the system of measures and weights. This determined the development of the doctrine of weighing and the theoretical basis of weighing - the science of balance, the creation of numerous designs of various types of balances. The need to improve the technique of moving goods and irrigation equipment, in turn, contributed to the development of the science of "simple machines", the design of devices for irrigation needs.

Arab scientists widely used the concept of specific gravity, improving methods for determining the specific gravity of various metals and minerals. This issue was dealt with by al-Biruni, O. Khayyam, al-Khazini (XII century). To determine the specific gravity, the law of Archimedes was applied, the loads were weighed not only in air, but also in water. The results obtained were extremely accurate. For example, the specific gravity of mercury was determined by al-Khazini at 13.56 g/cm3 (according to modern data -13.557); the specific gravity of silver is 10.30 g/cm ) etc. Such accurate data made it possible to solve a number of practical problems: to distinguish pure metal and precious stones from fakes, to establish the true value of coins, to detect the difference in the specific gravity of water at different temperatures, etc.

Dynamics developed on the basis of commenting on and understanding the writings of Aristotle. Medieval Arab scientists discussed the problem of the existence of emptiness and the possibility of movement in emptiness, the nature of movement in a resisting medium, the mechanism for transmitting movement, the free fall of bodies, the movement of bodies thrown at an angle to the horizon. In the works of Ibn Sina, known in Europe under the name of Avicenna, al-Baghdadi and al-Bitruji, in fact, the "theory of impetus" was formulated, which in medieval Europe played a large role as a prerequisite for the emergence of the principle of inertia.

Development kinematics was associated with the need for astronomy in rigorous methods for describing the movement of celestial bodies. In this direction, the apparatus for kinematic-geometric modeling of the movement of celestial bodies is being developed on the basis of K. Ptolemy's Almagest. In addition, the kinematics of "terrestrial" motions was studied in a number of works. In particular, the concept of motion is used to directly prove geometric propositions (Ibn Korra Sabit, Nasiraddin at-Tusi), mechanical motions are used to explain optical phenomena (Ibn al-Khaytham), a parallelogram of motions is studied, etc. One of the directions of medieval Arabic kinematics is the development of infinitesimal methods (i.e., consideration of infinite processes, continuity, transitions to the limit, etc.).

A significant contribution was made by Arab scientists and astronomy. They improved the technique of astronomical measurements, significantly supplemented and refined the data on the motion of celestial bodies. One of the outstanding astronomers-observers al-Zerkali (Arzakhel) from Cordoba, who was considered the best observer of the 11th century, compiled the so-called Toledo planetary tables (1080); they had a significant impact on the development of trigonometry in Western Europe.

The pinnacle in the field of observational astronomy was the work of Ulugbek, who was the beloved grandson of Timur, the creator of the vast empire. Driven by a passion for science, Ulugbek built in Samarkand at that time the world's largest astronomical observatory, which had a giant double quadrant and many other astronomical instruments (azimuth circle, astrolabes, triquetras, armillary spheres, etc.). The observatory created the work "New Astronomical Tables", which contained a presentation of the theoretical foundations of astronomy and a catalog of the positions of 1018 stars, determined for the first time after Hipparchus with an accuracy that remained unsurpassed until the observations of Tycho Brahe. The star catalog, planetary tables, refinements of the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator, determination of the length of the sidereal year with an error of one minute, annual precession and the length of the tropical year had great importance for the development of astronomy. The results of observations at the Ulugbek observatory have been used by European scientists for a long time.

In theoretical astronomy, the main attention was paid to the refinement of the kinematic-geometric models of the Almagest, the elimination of contradictions in Ptolemy's theory (including with the help of more advanced trigonometry), and the search for non-Ptolemaic methods for modeling the motion of celestial bodies. Mention should be made of attempts to reconcile the Almagest with the model of homocentric spheres (Ibn Bajji, Ibn Rushd, al-Bitruji) and the model proposed by the Maraga school (Nasiraddin at-Tusi, ash-Shirazi, ash-Shatir), according to which the "terrestrial" rectilinear motion participates in the motion of celestial bodies on an equal footing with a uniform circular motion, which has outlined a tendency towards the unification of "earthly" and "celestial" mechanics.

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