The thinker of china. Philosophy of Ancient China. Confucianism. Taoism. Moism. Legism. From the biography of Confucius

At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. in China, one of the oldest civilizations in the world, a natural-philosophical doctrine of the "will of Heaven" is being formed. It was argued that everything in the world depends on the predestination of heaven. Sovereign (Wang) he appeared before his subjects as the "Son of Heaven", and the country itself was called "Celestial Empire". The mythological worldview of Ancient China assumed that in ancient times the world was a formless chaos. Then two spirits appeared in him - Yin (feminine) and Yang (masculine) who shaped the earth and sky. Yang, the light beginning, expressed the properties of the sky, south, sun, day, life, strength. Yin personified the north, darkness, death, earth, moon, weakness, even numbers. Yin and Yang oppose each other, but at the same time depend on each other, interpenetrate each other, being the beginning of being, which finds expression in the well-known emblem.

In the VI century. BC. in China, philosophy flourishes, thinkers, who are called "perfectly wise", begin to play a large role in society. The main topics in the philosophy of China were the issues of governing the country, relations between various groups in society, philosophy was used to develop recommendations for organizing public life. The struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical directions, which are called "One hundred schools", although in fact there were significantly fewer main currents.

Consider some of the philosophical schools that have had the greatest impact on the culture and political life of China.

Taoism- management based on non-action. The founder of Taoism - Lao Tzu("Old thinker" or "old child"). According to legend, his mother wore him in the womb for 81 years, and he was born from her thigh in 604 BC. The newborn had gray hair, which made him look like an old man. For most of his life, he served as curator of the imperial archives and librarian. In old age, he went west from the country. When he reached the frontier post, its chief asked Lao Tzu to tell him about his teaching. The sage fulfilled the request by writing the text "Tao Te Chip" (The Book of the Way of Life), after which he left China forever.

The central concept of this teaching is "Tao" - the universal regularity of the world, the fundamental principle of all that exists, the universal Law and the Absolute, in accordance with which the development of the Universe takes place. Taoism has repeatedly emphasized the difficulty of comprehending Tao. Tao is incorporeal and formless, inexhaustible in action. Inexpressible in words, Tao is understood as non-being, which gives rise to being.

Besides Tao, there is "De". It is a kind of universal force, a principle with the help of which Tao as a way of things can take place. It is also a method by which one can conform to the Tao. Te is a principle, a way of being. If Tao is the primary cause, then it is concretized and materialized through de.

The cause of all hardships and calamities is that the action of Tao is violated in society; instead of the natural tao, people created the human tao, which serves the interests of the rich and harms the poor. We must return to the natural Tao, to the patriarchal community, where there were no rich and poor, exploitation and oppression.

The main idea of \u200b\u200bLao Tzu is the creation of such a system of public administration, which is based on inaction (the principle "wu-wei"), The best way to realize Tao. The "perfectly wise" ruler allows everything to follow its natural path. He does not interfere in anything, does not interfere with Tao. Therefore, "the best ruler is the one about whom they only know that he exists." The most reasonable behavior is the pursuit of calmness and moderation.

Taoism gradually degenerated into a religious system that presupposed the presence of superstition and magic, which had little in common with philosophical Taoism. And Lao Tzu himself was deified.

Confucianism - ritual-based management. Confucius, or Kunzi, i.e. "A teacher from the Kun clan" (551-479 BC) was born into the family of the third wife of a noble but impoverished military leader in the kingdom of Lu. When the future philosopher was only one and a half years old, his father died, and the mother, oppressed by older wives, was forced to return to her homeland in Qufu, where the family lived in poverty. Thanks to hard work and diligent study, Confucius was appointed manager of barns and only at the age of 50 was able to get involved in state activities, occupying the position of chief of the court order. After leaving the service due to intrigue, for 13 years he traveled to other Chinese states, trying to convey his ideas to the rulers who were engaged in internecine strife and plunged the people into the abyss of misery and suffering. After returning home, he continued to teach, collect and edit the literary legacy of the past, including the first weather chronicle in Chinese history, and the Book of Changes. Confucius' students recorded his thoughts and teachings - an essay "Lun Yu" ("Conversations and Judgments").

Unlike Lao Tzu, Confucius was not interested in the irrational: "I am not talking about the supernatural, about violence, about turmoil and about spirits."

The main idea of \u200b\u200bConfucius is “ correction of names " - under the influence of time, people change, their relationships, but at the same time old words are used, although the content of these names has already changed. So, they call a person a ruler, although he is no longer the ruler that was in the past; they call a man a son, although he no longer fully fulfills filial duties. The discrepancy between the old and the new content of the names must be eliminated, the names must be "correct", which actually meant a call to return to the past. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every personality has its own function.

Confucius paints the image " noble husband " (tszyun-tzu), opposing him to a commoner. A noble man is afraid of three things: he is afraid of the command of heaven, great people and the words of the perfectly wise.

Confucius named five virtues of a "noble man", bringing up which a person achieves harmony with the external and internal world. They are reflected in the form of five sacred hieroglyphs.

• Hieroglyph " Ren " (tree) - humanity, following it means leadership with love, mercy, humanity and compassion for people.
• Hieroglyph "AND" (metal) - justice, following it means the principle of reciprocity, which balances humanity. So, you need to respect your parents in gratitude for the fact that they raised you.
• Hieroglyph " Zhi " (water) - common sense, following it means balancing justice, preventing stubbornness and stupidity.
• Hieroglyph "Lee" (fire) is a ritual, following it means observing the necessary ceremonies, rituals, dignity and respect for oneself - this allows people to better feel life itself, its spirit.
• Hieroglyph "Xin" (earth or heart) - sincerity, following it means balancing the ritual, preventing hypocrisy is the main Confucian virtue, without which everyone else will have no power.

« Short person" (xiao-zhen) does not know the dictates of heaven and is not afraid of it, he despises tall people in a high position and ignores the words of a wise man.

Behavioral governance is at the heart of Confucius' ethical and political ideas. The basis of order in the country is "Whether"

(ritual, ceremonial, reverence). Lee includes rules of conduct, moral imperatives, respect, and strict adherence to the division of social roles. The ritual is all-encompassing. Plays an important role devotion(zhong) - the idea of \u200b\u200bobedience and respect for the ruler, parents, elder brothers by younger ones. The importance of honoring parents is emphasized.

Confucianism pays great attention to the issues of political life and government. The relationship between the ruler and the people is likened to the relationship between the rider and the horse. The “rider” is a ruler endowed with great wisdom, and the “horse” is a people incapable of independent actions. The ruler ruled over the people with the help of "bridle" and "reins" - officials and laws. For the existence of a normal state and for maintaining order in the state, first of all, a certain prosperity is necessary. Confucius said that people must first "be made rich" and then "educated".

Confucius pointed out the need to eliminate four evils: cruelty, rudeness, robbery and greed. Actions opposite to these four types of evil are to educate the people, to warn them, to sacredly observe reasonable orders, to be generous.

Confucius spoke of the power and significance of the moral example of the superior for the inferior. "If the personal behavior of those (who are at the top) is correct, things go on, although they do not give orders."

Confucius' views strongly influenced the subsequent spiritual culture and political practice of China.

Moism - governance based on virtue. The founder of the school, Mo-tzu, or Mo Di (c. 475-395 BC), came from a family of small owners, was a fellow countryman of Confucius. Having studied Confucianism, Mo Tzu became his opponent in a number of positions. In his opinion, people may not follow the desires of heaven, in people's lives there is no fatal predestination, there is no destiny.

Mo-tzu talks about seven troubles in the state:

• 1) waste of the ruler, sometimes it comes to the point that there are no funds for the fortress wall, and at the same time palaces are being built;
• 2) lack of mutual assistance between separate possessions;
• 3) the impoverishment of commoners due to the waste of dignitaries;
• 4) the unrighteousness of the ruler's servants;
• 5) self-confidence of the ruler, lack of interest in the opinion of those close to him;
• 6) lack of loyalty and trust between the ruler and the servants;
• 7) lack of zeal on the part of servants and dignitaries, fear of punishment.

At the heart of all disasters is "mutual disunity," in which different interests give rise to "mutual hatred." Mo Tzu proposed a program of relationships between people, contributing to the improvement of society. The central idea of \u200b\u200bhis teaching is the call to seek the establishment of relations between all people on the principles of "universal love and mutual benefit." This thesis of the Moists, as opposed to the Confucian principles of dividing society into "commoners" and "noble men", "ruling" and "ruled", was an attempt at a kind of ethical substantiation of the idea of \u200b\u200bequality of people and reflected the desire to involve broad strata of the population in the political life of the state ...

Mo-tzu believed that to govern the state it is necessary to "nominate the wise" regardless of their social status. “Officials do not have permanent prominence; the people should not be constantly in a low position. " He believed that disorder in society arises from the absence of "universal love."

Fazia (school of legists)- rule of law, was created Han Feiyem(c. 280-233 BC). The Legists generally rejected ritual and tradition-based governance. Speaking out against the Confucians, they ridiculed their arguments about philanthropy, duty, justice, brotherly love, calling them "word games" and comparing them with children's games "preparing elegant dishes from the sand." In contrast to ritualistic rule, the virtues of the Legists advocated rule of law.

In the book Shang Yang"Shang jun shu" ("Book of the ruler of the Shang region" - a treatise of the 4th-3rd centuries) the need for management on the basis of the law is justified by the fact that a person is naturally evil. The animal principle inherent in a person cannot be changed by education, but its manifestations can be prevented by strict laws, a system of punishments and rewards. A person must be approached as a vicious being. “Where (people are treated) as virtuous, wrongdoings are hidden; in the same place where (people are treated) as vicious, crimes are severely punished ... If people are ruled as virtuous, then turmoil is inevitable and the country will perish; if you manage people as vicious, then an exemplary order is always established and the country achieves power. "

Peace and order in a country can only be based on laws. The laws must be tough. Severe punishments are necessary to make people afraid of the law. Laws should be uniform, binding on everyone.

When selecting people for service, it is not necessary to evaluate their appearance, clothing or speech, but to check them in the performance of duties. Legislation, a well-thought-out system of awards and punishments, a system of mutual guarantee and general surveillance were supposed to ensure the unity of the state and the strength of the ruler's power. This concept played a large role in the creation of a single centralized state.

The philosophy of ancient China did not have any serious impact on the development of philosophy in Europe. However, she had a great influence on the countries neighboring China. Thus, Confucianism has become one of the main ideological teachings in Japan, along with Shinto and Buddhism.

• The “Book of Changes” (“I-Ching”) is intended for fortune-telling, the purpose of which is to understand whether a person's activity runs counter to the course of world achievement, or is harmoniously included in the world, ie whether she brings him unhappiness or happiness. The book contains 64 symbols (hexagrams), each of which expresses one or another life situation in time from the point of view of its gradual development. Each hexagram is accompanied by a set of phorisms, which should give advice to the fortuneteller.
• Confucius. Lunyu. Vii. 21/22.

The philosophy of Ancient China dates back to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The formation of philosophical ideas in China took place in difficult social conditions. Already in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. in the state of Shang-Yin (XVII-XII centuries BC) a slave-owning mode of economy appears, the emergence of the economy of Ancient China begins.

The labor of slaves, into which captured prisoners were converted, was used in cattle breeding, in agriculture. In the XII century BC. e. As a result of the war, the Shan-Yin state was defeated by the Zhou tribe, which founded its own dynasty, which existed until the 3rd century. BC e.

In the Shang-Yin era and in the initial period of the Jou dynasty, a religious and mythological worldview was dominant. One of the distinguishing features of Chinese myths is the zoomorphic nature of the gods and spirits operating in them.

The supreme deity was Shang-di - the ancestor and patron of the Chinese state. Both gods and spirits obeyed him. Often the personified power of Heaven appeared in the image of Shang-di. According to the ideas of the ancient Chinese, the impersonal, but all-seeing Heaven ruled the entire course of events in the Universe, and its high priest and the only representative on earth was the emperor, who bore the title of the Son of Heaven.

The “first” feature of Chinese philosophy (rather mythology) was the cult of ancestors, which was based on the recognition of the influence of the spirits of the dead on the life and fate of descendants. The duty of the ancestors who became spirits included constant care for the descendants living on earth.

The “second” feature of ancient Chinese philosophy is the idea of \u200b\u200bthe world as the interaction of opposing principles: female yin and male - yang. In ancient times, when there was no heaven or earth, the Universe was a dark, formless chaos. Two spirits were born in him - yin and yang, which took up the ordering of the world. The yang spirit began to rule the sky, and the yin spirit - the earth. In the myths about the origin of the Universe, there are very vague, timid beginnings of natural philosophy.

To understand Chinese philosophy, it is necessary to take into account that China is the world of right-brain culture, which is expressed inculture of ancient China

The world of visual images, musical melodies is stored in the right hemisphere, centers of hypnosis and religious experiences are localized. In left-brain cultures, the speech center and the center of logical thinking are powerfully developed. In right-brain cultures, sounds are heard and perceived differently, it is very difficult for representatives of these cultures to express sounds literally, they perceive the world in specific, single images.

Philosophical Thinking of China

Holism - The world and each individual are considered as “one wholeness”, more important than its constituent parts... Chinese holistic thinking focuses on such characteristics of the phenomenon as "structure - function" rather than "substance - element". The idea of \u200b\u200bthe harmonious unity of man and the world is central to this thinking. Man and nature are viewed not as subject and object opposing each other, but as an “integral structure” in which body and spirit, somatic and psychic are in harmonious unity.

Intuitiveness - in Chinese traditional philosophical thinking, cognitive methods similar to intuition are of great importance. The basis for this is holism. “One” cannot be analyzed with the help of concepts and reflected with the help of language. To understand "one wholeness" - you need to rely only on intuitive insight.

Symbolism - Traditional Chinese philosophical thinking used images (xingxiang) as a tool of thought.

Tiyan - cognition of the principles of the macrocosm was carried out through - a complex cognitive act , including cognition, emotional experience and volitional impulses. Cognition was combined with aesthetic sensation and the will to put moral norms into practice. The leading role in this complex was played by moral consciousness.

Philosophy - schools of ancient China

The beginning of a violent ideological struggle between various philosophical and ethical schools of ancient China caused deep political upheavals in the 7th-3rd centuries. BC e. - the collapse of the ancient unified state and the strengthening of individual kingdoms, an acute struggle between large kingdoms.

The Zhanguo period in the history of ancient China is often referred to as the “golden age of Chinese philosophy”. It was during this period that concepts and categories were born, which would then become traditional for all subsequent Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

During that period, there were 6 (six) main schools of thought:

• taoism: The universe is the source of harmony, therefore everything in the world, from plant to human, is beautiful in its natural state. The best ruler is the one who leaves people alone. Thinkers: Lao Tzu, Le Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Yang Zhu; Wen-tzu, Yin Xi. Representatives of later Taoism: Ge Hong, Wang Xuanlan, Li Quan, Zhang Boduan
• confucianism: the ruler and his officials must govern the country according to the principles of justice, honesty and love. The ethical rules, social norms and regulation of the administration of the despotic centralized state were studied. Thinkers: Confucius, Tseng-tzu, Tzu Sy, Yu Ruo, Tzu-gao, Meng-tzu, Xun-tzu.
• moism: the meaning of the teaching was the ideas of universal love and success, everyone should be concerned about mutual benefit. Representatives of Moism: Mo-Tzu, Qin Huali, Meng Sheng, Tian Xiang-tzu, Fu Dun.
• school of legalists: dealt with problems of social theory and public administration. Representatives of the philosophical school: Ren Buhai, Li Kui, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, Han Feizi; they also include Shen Dao.
• school of names: the inconsistency of the names of the essence of things leads to chaos. Shola representatives of the names: Deng Xi, Hui Shi, Gongsun Long; Mao gong.
• school "Yin-Yang" (natural philosophers). Representatives of this school: Tzu-wei, Zou Yan, Zhang Tsang.

FEDERAL AGENCY FOR EDUCATION STATE HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION

CHITA STATE UNIVERSITY ChitGU

INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT

DEPARTMENT OF STATE, MUNICIPAL ADMINISTRATION AND POLICY

Discipline abstract: Philosophy

On the topic: Philosophy of Ancient China

Completed: student

GMU groups 09-1

Krapivnaya E. O

Checked by: Anuchina N.A.

Introduction

Conclusion

Introduction

In the distant past, almost four thousand years ago, after the birth of the slave system, the history of the development of Chinese philosophy begins.

The philosophy and religion of ancient China is unique. It is no coincidence that philosophy and religion stand side by side, for the two main directions of the philosophy of ancient China - Confucianism and Taoism are difficult to separate from religion.

The first doctrine actively used linguistic, ethical, legal and ritual conventions. The second, on the contrary, advocated liberation from the conventions imposed by society and the search for not linear, not abstract, but direct and immediate knowledge.

These are two main directions of philosophy and at the same time, according to many prominent scholars, these are the two main beliefs of China. Moreover, for a historically long period, Confucianism and Taoism have been the dominant faiths in China. And in this sense, the philosophy of Ancient China is unique.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is very specific. This is determined, first of all, by its subordination to political and moral practice. Questions of ethics, ritual, governing the country, building an ideal society were dominant in it. The coincidence with politics was not only problematic, but also, let's say, official. Many philosophers represented influential social forces and served as ministers, dignitaries, ambassadors. "Knowledge - action - morality" - this chain in ancient China was one of the main lines of philosophizing.

Chinese philosophy, like Chinese culture as a whole, during the period of its emergence and development did not experience any significant influence of any other, non-Chinese, spiritual traditions. This is a completely independent philosophy, most different from the European one.

Despite the fact that man in China is identified with nature and space and does not stand out from society, he occupies a central place in Chinese philosophy.

Chapter 1

1.1 Features of the development of philosophy in China

The specificity of Chinese philosophy is directly related to its special role in the acute socio-political struggle that took place in the numerous states of Ancient China during the "Spring and Autumn" and "Warring States" periods. The development of social relations in China did not lead to a clear division of spheres of activity within the ruling classes. In China, a kind of division of labor between politicians and philosophers was not clearly expressed, which led to a direct, direct subordination of philosophy to political practice.

Philosophers, founders and disseminators of various schools, itinerant Confucian preachers, representing a very influential social system, were often ministers, dignitaries, ambassadors. This led to the fact that the issues of governing the country, relations between different classes and social groups of the population in society, took a dominant place in Chinese philosophy and determined a purely practical approach to the life of society. The issues of social management, relations between various social groups - that is what interested the philosophers of ancient China mainly. Another feature of the development of Chinese philosophy is associated with the fact that the natural scientific observations of Chinese scientists did not find, with a few exceptions, more or less adequate expression in philosophy, because philosophers, as a rule, did not consider it necessary to turn to the materials of natural science.

The isolation of Chinese philosophy from concrete scientific knowledge narrowed its subject matter. The isolation of ancient Chinese philosophy from natural science and the underdevelopment of questions of logic is one of the main reasons that the formation of the conceptual apparatus proceeded very slowly. For most Chinese schools of thought, the method of logical analysis remained virtually unknown.

1.2 Formation of the Chinese School of Philosophy

In the VII-III centuries. BC. In the ideological life of ancient China, new phenomena appear that are qualitatively different from what the Chinese thought of the previous period knew and which was due to serious sociological shifts. During this period, major economic and social changes took place in ancient China, caused by the emergence of private ownership of land, the development of productive forces, the expansion of types of crafts, the use of new, iron tools and tools in agriculture and industry, and the improvement of the methods of tillage.

Deep political upheavals - the collapse of the ancient unified state and the strengthening of individual kingdoms, a sharp struggle between large kingdoms for hegemony - were reflected in the stormy ideological struggle of various philosophical, political and ethical schools. This period is characterized by the flourishing of culture and philosophy. The hereditary nobility still clung to the religious ideas of "heaven", "fate", albeit somewhat modifying them in relation to the peculiarities of the struggle of that time. New social groups that were in opposition to the tribal aristocracy put forward their views, opposing faith in "heaven" or putting a completely different meaning into the concept of heavenly fate. In these teachings, attempts were made to comprehend historical experience, find an "ideal law" for governing a country, develop new rules for relations between various social groups of the population, determine the place of an individual, a country in the world around, and determine a person's relationship with nature, the state and other people.

The true flowering of ancient Chinese philosophy falls precisely on the period of the VI-III centuries. BC, which is rightfully called the golden age of Chinese philosophy. It was during this period that such works of philosophical and social thought appeared, such as "Tao de jing", "Lun-yu", "Mo tzu" and others. It was during this period that the formation of the Chinese philosophical school, Taoism, took place, which then exerted a tremendous influence on the entire subsequent development of Chinese philosophy. It was during this period that those problems, those concepts and categories arose that then became traditional for the entire subsequent history of Chinese philosophy, right up to modern times.

Chapter 2

2.1 Schools in Chinese Philosophy

In 221 BC. in China, the Qin dynasty came to power. The time of her reign was very short (until 207 BC), but significant, since during this time the unification of China took place again, and the formal imperial power was filled with real content. China was united by a single power and during the reign of the next dynasty - the Han - until 220 AD.

The century that preceded the Qin dynasty was a period of state and social decay, in which the dying clan nobility and the growing oligarchy competed in the struggle for power. The clan nobility strove to return to the previous order that had developed during the Zhou Dynasty (1021-404 BC). The oligarchy, whose strength in society was based on the economic principles of ownership, demanded the need for a legal law (fa), according to which social relations would be regulated without discounts on origin.

Historians who have dealt with this era (the era of "warring states") define this flowering of philosophy as the rivalry of a hundred schools. The Han historian Sima Tan (d. 110 BC) identifies the following six philosophies:

1) school of yin and yang (yin yang jia);

2) school of Confucians, writers (zhu jia);

3) school of moists (mojia); ...

4) school of names (min jia);

5) school of lawyers, legalists (fa jia);

6) school of path and strength, Taoists (Tao Te Jia, Dao Jia)

The first classification of philosophical schools of Ancient China is given in Shi Ji (Historical Notes) by Sima Qian (II-I centuries BC). Later, at the turn of our era, the classification of schools was supplemented by four more "schools" , however, with the exception of zajia, or “schools of eclectics,” in fact, they have nothing to do with the philosophy of China. Some schools are named according to the nature of the social activities of the founder of the school, others by the name of the founder of the doctrine, and others according to the main principles of the concept of this doctrine.

At the same time, despite all the specifics of philosophy in ancient China, the relationship between the schools of thought was ultimately reduced to the struggle between two main tendencies - materialistic and idealistic, although, of course, this struggle cannot be presented in its pure form.

In the early stages of the development of Chinese philosophy. For example, even in the days of Confucius and Mo Tzu, the attitude of these thinkers to the main issue of philosophy was not expressed directly. Questions about the essence of human consciousness, its relationship to nature, the material world were not clearly defined. Often, the views of those philosophers whom we refer to as materialists contained significant elements of religious, mystical ideas of the past, and, conversely, thinkers who generally held idealistic positions gave materialistic interpretations to individual issues.

2.2 Philosophical, religious and ideological foundations of Confucianism

Philosophy in its "pure form" is very rare in history. A philosopher is usually also a psychologist, and a religious figure, and a politician, and a writer, and few others ... Confucianism is an amazing synthesis of philosophy, ethics and religion.

Confucius (often referred to in literature as Kun Fu-tzu - "teacher Kun" 551-479 BC) is an ancient Chinese philosopher, founder of Confucianism, the greatest teacher of his time.

The time when this thinker lived and worked is known as the time of upheavals in the internal life of the country. Fresh ideas and ideals were needed to bring the country out of the crisis. Confucius found such ideas and the necessary moral authority in the semi-legendary images of past history. He criticized his century, opposing the past centuries to it, offered his own version of the perfect person - tszyun-tzu.

The ideal person, constructed by the thinker Confucius, must have two fundamental characteristics: humanity (ren) and a sense of duty (s). Humanity includes such qualities as modesty, justice, restraint, dignity, selflessness, love for people. In reality, this ideal of humanity is almost unattainable. A sense of duty is a moral obligation that a humane person imposes on himself. It is dictated by the inner conviction that one should act this way and not another. The concept of a sense of duty included such virtues as the pursuit of knowledge, the obligation to learn and comprehend the wisdom of ancestors. Confucius' undoubted merit was that he, for the first time in the history of China, created a private school, with the help of which he spread classes and literacy. The fact that this educational institution was generally accessible is evidenced by the words of the philosopher: "I accept for training everyone. Those who have a desire to learn and will bring a bunch of dried meat."

A perfect person with a set of the above properties is an honest and sincere person, straightforward and fearless, attentive in speech and careful in deeds. True chun-tzu is indifferent to food, wealth, material comfort. He is committed to serving lofty ideals and seeking truth.

The source of our knowledge about the teachings of Confucius is the records of his conversations and sayings made by his students and followers, the book "Lunyu". The philosopher was most interested in issues related to the mental and moral appearance of a person, the life of the state, family and the principles of government.

Confucius' supporters and followers were concerned with how to curb the strife in society and bring the public and private life of people into a state of harmony. They emphasized the fundamental importance of antiquity for the harmonious life of society: the rule of justice, the absence of internecine wars, riots, oppression by the majority of the minority, robbery, etc.

"The path of the golden mean" is the methodology of the reformism of Confucius and one of the main links of his ideology. The main questions solved by Confucianism are: "How is it necessary to manage people? How to behave in society?" The main theme in the reflections of the Chinese sage was the theme of man and society. He built an ethical and political doctrine that was quite harmonious for its time, which for a long time retained indisputable authority in China. Confucius has developed a system of specific concepts and principles with which one can explain the world, and acting in accordance with them, ensure the proper order in it: "zhen" (philanthropy), "li" (respect), "xiao" (respect for parents) , "di" (respect for the elder brother), "zhong" loyalty to the ruler and lord) and others.

The main one among them is "zhen" - a kind of moral law, following which one can avoid unfriendliness, greed, hatred, etc. On the basis of them, Confucius formulated a rule later called the "golden rule of morality": "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." This maxim has taken its rightful place in philosophy, although it was expressed in different ways.

The principle of "zhen" in the Confucian system correlated with another, no less important - "li", which designated the norms of communication and expressed the practical implementation of the ethical law. People should follow this principle always and everywhere, starting with individual and family relations and ending with state ones, thus introducing measure and orderliness into their actions.

All the ethical requirements and attitudes of Confucius served to characterize the personality, combining the high qualities of nobility, mercy and kindness to people with high social status. The correct path allowed one to live in complete harmony with oneself and the surrounding world, without opposing oneself to the order established by Heaven. This is the path (and ideal) of a "noble man", to whom the sage opposed a "little man" who was guided by personal gain and self-love and violating generally accepted norms. But, since people are by nature equal and differ only in habits, Confucius shows the "little man" the way to self-improvement: one must strive to overcome oneself and return to "li" - decency, respectful and respectful attitude towards others.

The teachings of the Chinese thinker are imbued with the spirit of preserving traditions as the basis for the stability of society. In society, people should build relationships like in a good family. Rulers must enjoy the trust of the people and educate them through their own experience. According to the principle "zhenmin" (correction of names), everyone should know their place in society: the sovereign should be the sovereign, the subject - the subject, the father - the father, the son - the son. Then the society will be harmonious and stable.

In the III century. BC. - II century. the teachings of Confucius received the status of a state ideology and subsequently became the basis for a specific Chinese way of life, in many ways defining Chinese civilization.

He does not speak about the opposition of society to man in his famous Sayings. He talks about what it means to be human, a special being with unique dignity and strength that are embodied in him. Is it enough just to be born, then eat, drink, breathe? Animals do the same. To gain culture and through it create relationships, human relationships that are symbolic in nature, defined by tradition and based on respect and responsibility. It is here that a person is born.

What is the secret of the longevity and vitality of the Confucian teaching? It is explained by many factors. Firstly, in the creation of the image of a noble person, and not in the preaching of obedience and obedience, there is, according to a number of researchers of Confucianism, the secret of the attractiveness, durability and spread of the teachings of Confucius, its profound influence on all aspects of the life of Chinese society. Other scientists see the mystery of the long-term preservation of the Confucian worldview and its profound influence on the life of the Chinese, Koreans, Japanese, Vietnamese in the fact that he preached humanity, philanthropy, advocating peace and order.

On the basis of the doctrine of the perfect man, Confucius creates a model of an ideal socio-political structure. The supreme goal of the social order is the welfare of the people. It is the good that comes first, and after it Confucius places the deity and only after that the monarch. Another important component of the social order is strict obedience to elders, respect for them. The state is a big family, and the family is a small state.

The state should have a clear structure, where each has its own place: one obeys, the other rules. The criterion for belonging to the estate of managers is not nobility of origin, but education. Every Chinese should strive to become a Confucian. The system of education and upbringing should be devoted to this.

Of the other principles that govern the daily life of the Chinese, the principle of filial piety (xiao) should be noted, which specifies the requirement of ancestor veneration. Every person who strives for the ideal chun-tzu is obliged to be a respectful son. The meaning of xiao is to serve parents according to the rules of the book "Li-Ching". The son is obliged to please the parents, to be ready for anything to ensure their health, food, shelter, etc.

Thanks to simple and understandable ideas, as well as because of its pragmatism, Confucianism eventually became the state philosophy and religion of China.

Thus, the huge role that the practice of moral and mental self-improvement played in Confucianism logically followed from the fundamental provisions of this doctrine, and its specific features: constant introspection, strict self-control, emphasis on the ordering of mental activity, etc., were due to characteristic features Confucianism and were closely related to its fundamental principles.

Confucius's ideas had a tremendous impact on the entire subsequent history of state thought. However, the fact remains. Confucius has been the most revered person in China for many centuries. It is not surprising that a temple, more precisely, a temple complex, was built on the site of Confucius's house. On all the gates of these temples there are signs with the inscription: "Teacher and example of ten thousand generations, equal to Heaven and earth."

2.3 The role of Taoism in Chinese culture and the concept of "Tao"

At the end of the Chunqiu period, when Lao Tzu lived, the main trend in the development of society was manifested in the fall of the slaveholding and the emergence of the feudal system. Faced with the enormous social changes that were taking place, Lao Tzu rejected with disgust the principle of "rule-of-conduct" prevailing in the former slave-owning society and mournfully complained: "Rules of conduct - they undermine loyalty and trust, initiate unrest."

But in the general variety, one concept can be distinguished. The cultures of the north and south of China differed the most from each other. If the north, which gave rise to Confucianism, is characterized by attention to ethical issues and ritual, the desire for a rational rethinking of the archaic foundations of civilization, then in the south the element of mythopoetic thinking prevailed. The first gave him content, the second gave form. Without the southern tradition, Taoism would not have become Taoism, without the northern one, it would not have been able to speak about itself in the language of great culture and book education.

Lao Tzu ("Old Teacher") - the ancient Chinese legendary founder of Taoism; according to legend, he was born in 604 BC. The followers of the "venerable teacher" set forth his main ideas in the book "Tao Te Ching" - "The Book of the Tao Path and the Good Power of Te", also called "The Path of Virtue."

The main distinguishing feature of the philosophy of Lao Tzu, which characterizes the followers of Taoism, is that Tao is viewed as the source of the origin of all things, as a universal law governing the world, on the basis of which an ideological system arose, the highest category of which is Tao.

In contrast to the ethical and political views of Confucius, Lao Tzu reflects on the universe, on the world natural rhythm of events, using two basic concepts for this: "Tao" and "Te". If for the founder of Confucianism, Tao is the path of human behavior, the path of China, then for the Taoists it is a universal ideological concept denoting the beginning, basis and completion of all that exists, a kind of all-encompassing law of being.

The hieroglyph of Tao consists of two parts: show - head and zou - to go, therefore the main meaning of this hieroglyph is the road that people walk, but later this hieroglyph acquired a figurative meaning and began to mean regularity, law. Lao Tzu, taking Tao for the highest category of his philosophy, gave it not only the meaning of a universal law, but also considers it as the source of the origin of the world. He thought. That Tao is the "root of heaven and earth," "the mother of all things," that Tao is the foundation of the world. Lao Tzu said: "Tao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, and three gives birth to all beings," which is a characteristic of the process of the origin of everything from Tao.

If "Tao" is a certain spiritual essence, then "te" is rather its material embodiment, manifestation of Tao in things and human behavior. Tao and Te are inseparable: Tao not only generates things, but also constantly improves them. Tao has no definiteness (therefore, it cannot be expressed in words), it is identical to emptiness (non-being), but it is a generating emptiness, all the possibilities of the world are hidden in it.

Expressing profound dialectical ideas in this, albeit naive form, the Taoists emphasized that the world is the continuous birth and death of everything, the emergence and return. Everything carries within itself Tao, which gives the world harmony and unity. And a person's life is predetermined: he must live and act in accordance with "naturalness", that is, without violating the law of Tao. Therefore, people should not strive for active action, interfere with the natural course of events, much less change it.

Let's go back to the comparison. According to Confucius, the main distinguishing feature of a "noble man" is vigorous activity, organized by the ceremonial rules "whether" he strives to remake himself. Lao-tzu professes the principle of "non-action" - "Wu wei", which means refusal of any activity: everyone should go on as usual. However, such a position did not at all demonstrate detachment from the world; on the contrary, it expressed the organic inseparability of man from the Universe on a single basis - Tao. To bring "Wu Wei" to life, you need to remain dispassionate, keep your spirit and calmness. Then, behind the struggle of things, one can see harmony, behind movement - peace, behind non-being - being. Only one who is free from passions is able to penetrate into Tao and even merge with it. The passionate sees only the final - de.

The Confucian values \u200b\u200bof a "noble man", as we see, are opposed to the Taoist ideal of a completely wise - "shenzhen" - a person who does not strive for deeds. The principle of non-action as the highest form of behavior was also put in the basis of management: a wise ruler should not interfere with the social order, so as not to violate the natural law. The ideal of public life was peace, not war, concessions to neighbors, not fighting with them, wisdom, not violence and cruelty.

The historical limitation of the representatives of the Taoist school consisted in the fact that, by tradition, idealizing the past, they demanded a return to it. In addition, they preached the fatalistic theory of "non-action", according to which people should blindly follow the Tao and not oppose it, as otherwise their efforts may be counterproductive. The most intelligent behavior is to seek satisfaction in calmness. Later Taoism, which resulted in a reactionary religious trend, developed precisely these negative aspects of the teachings of the Taoist school.

In the socio-ethical teachings of Lao Tzu, it is easy to see an obvious contradiction. On the one hand, against social inequality and oppression in ancient Chinese society, criticism of the arbitrariness and cruelty of self-serving rulers; on the other, the denial of any struggle, fatalism, reliance solely on the natural course of things. Seeing no way out of this situation, Lao Tzu preached the idea of \u200b\u200breturning to the primitive communal way of life.

Thus, the teaching of Lao Tzu is of a contradictory dual character. His dialectical ideas about the mutability of the world of things, about the mutual transition of opposites and others are combined with a metaphysical understanding of the unity of all things; the materialistic interpretation of the world of things as a natural process is abstract, contemplative in nature, which served as the basis for the formation of the Taoist theory of "non-action"; his criticism of social evil was accompanied by a call for the revival of a historically exhausted way of life.

However, in the conditions of ancient China, the rational ideas of Lao Tzu played a positive role, serving as the initial platform for the further development of materialistic views and progressive sociological views of various directions.

Conclusion

Thus, the development of theoretical thinking and the formation of philosophy are a long process, the preconditions for which can be found already at the early stages of human society. The oldest philosophical systems that tried to find an answer to the question of the origin, essence of the world and the place of man in it had a long prehistory, but they appeared at a relatively developed stage of class relations.

Already in the conditions of the tribal community, completely dependent on nature, man began to influence the natural process, gaining experience and knowledge that affect his life. The world around us gradually becomes the subject of human activity.

The isolation of a person from the surrounding world was accompanied by various magical rituals that symbolized his desire to unite with nature.

The development of a person's practical activity presupposes the improvement of his ability to foresee, based on the observation of a certain sequence of events and, thus, comprehension of certain laws of natural phenomena.

The most important points influencing the course of this process include the need to explain and reproduce the results of cognition. The development of language, and, above all, the appearance of abstract concepts, is an important evidence of the formation of theoretical thinking and the formation of prerequisites for the emergence of general inferences, and thus for philosophy.

The most important milestone in the development of human thinking was the invention of writing. It not only brought new opportunities for the transfer of knowledge, but also enriched the prerequisites for the development of knowledge itself.

The conditions for the progress of theoretical thinking, and within its framework, the first manifestations of philosophical thinking, were uneven. Individual regions with different socio-economic conditions differed among themselves. The development of philosophical thinking in the countries of the East was not a straight line. And although mutual influence is not excluded at some stages and in some areas, all three studied regions - the Middle East, India and China - represent independent, cultural entities.

The Middle East did not create in ancient times a philosophical tradition in the true sense of the word. However, it was an area where, unlike other regions of the world, sedentary farmers prevailed, and the development of socio-economic relations was very intensive. The accumulated amount of knowledge and experience corresponded to this dynamic development.

They also influenced religious beliefs, ideology and culture in general. All these various spheres of human thought activity appeared in the ancient Middle Eastern civilizations as a single whole.

Ancient and medieval Chinese philosophy cannot be separated from the development of the spiritual life of Chinese society as a whole. It developed independently, and only Buddhism significantly influenced it, however, over several centuries it was adapted to local tradition and spiritual life. Chinese philosophy can be characterized as a single whole, the development of which was determined by the ability to integrate various new external influences.

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The Chinese tradition, in contrast to the Indian one, is least of all connected with religion. The efforts of the Chinese, their abilities and work were focused on earthly life, on the desire to realize themselves in this world. Such features of Chinese culture as sobriety, rationalism, stability, high appreciation of life, love for clear organization and order determined the specific features of ancient Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is, first of all, practical philosophy. It is addressed to the practice of today, to the earthly, and not the afterlife. In contrast to the Indians, the Chinese were keenly interested in socio-political problems. The philosophers of ancient China focused on government and ethics.

Ancient Chinese philosophy is naturalistic philosophy... Naturalism manifested itself, first of all, in the fact that traditional Chinese thought was directed towards the natural course of things. It lacked the concept of purely spiritual entities. This circumstance was associated with the undeveloped formal logic in ancient China.

The beginning of ancient Chinese philosophy was laid by commentaries on one of the earliest literary monuments of Ancient China - "Book of Changes" ("I Ching").

The ancient Chinese believed in an impartial, supreme regulatory power - tian , which establishes a sacred social order in accordance with the cosmic order of Heaven. To find out the desire of Heaven, what awaits a person in the future, the Chinese turned to soothsayers. Those were guided in their predictions trigrams, which were built with the help of two lines (solid and discontinuous), symbolizing the duality of cosmic forces. Trigrams formed the basis of the Book of Changes. However, this book was used not only as a practical guide to predictions. It laid the foundations of the doctrine, which was perceived by ancient Chinese philosophers.

Dual cosmic forces The "Book of Changes" calls yang and yin: yang is indicated by a solid line (-), and yin is indicated by a broken line (- -). These concepts have replaced such more ancient designations of the forces of space, such as heaven and earth, sun and moon, etc.

Yang - positive, masculine, active, light, solid beginning. Yin - negative, feminine, passive, dark, soft beginning. The Book of Change describes yang and yin as forces that perpetuate the universe through an endless chain of transformations. The interaction of yang and yin is determined by the Tao. Tao (The Highest Path) represents the natural order, the highest degree of organization of nature and at the same time the path that a person must go through in his life.

Those who have brought their lives in line with the yin-yang rhythms of the Tao live happily ever after. Those who shied away from this doomed themselves to misfortune and premature death. Those who lived in harmony with nature accumulated large amounts of qi - the life force that periodically fills the Universe. The accumulation of this force leads to an increase de - not only a person could have De, birds and animals, plants and stones could have it. For example, it was believed that the tortoise possesses a large number of te and lives for a long time, and the pine is a storehouse for te and does not fade.

It was also argued that de forms a connection between the dead and the living. Representatives of the ruling class have a large supply of te, which they inherited from their ancestors and which they will pass on to their descendants. After the death of a person, one of his souls - by - remains in the body until its decomposition, and the other - hun- ascends to heaven and feeds on sacrifices that are made by descendants, so that de ancestors do not decrease. In this case, the descendants are guided by whether (rituals, ceremonies), that is, the established rules of conduct.

Ordinary people did not have a cult of ancestors, so they had a small number of te. In their behavior they are guided by su (customs). The most important thing for them is not to violate the customs of the natural order, to maintain constant contact with the forces of nature. Su were expressed in seasonal festivals, where the spirits of the earth, mountains, rivers were pacified.

Many concepts from the "Book of Changes" have become common to all areas of traditional Chinese philosophy.

Ancient Chinese philosophy during its heyday, in the I-III centuries. BC, was represented by many competing schools ( confucianism, Taoism, Legalism, Moism, natural philosophy school, school of namesand etc.). In a later period, only two of these schools survived as independent directions - Taoism and Confucianism. At the beginning of the new era, Buddhism, which came from India, was added to them. As a result, the so-called "triad of teachings" was gradually formed, which has existed in China up to the present time.

The concept of Tao gave its name to the school taoism... Moreover, the ancient Taoists themselves did not call their teachings that way. This name appeared later in

Lao Tzu (604-531 BC) was an ancient Chinese philosopher. His real name is Li Er. He was nicknamed the Elderly Infant (Lao-Tzu), for, according to legend, his mother carried him in the womb for 81 years, and he was born a wise old man. There is no reliable information about his life. It is believed that he served as an archivist at the Zhou court and met with Confucius. Leaving China forever, he left with the head of the border outpost an exposition of his teachings entitled “ Tao Te Ching " ("The Highest Path and its Good Power"). Lao Tzu is considered the founder of Taoism, which became both a philosophical school and a religion.

historical writings to designate the philosophy of the Tao Way, the founder of which was Lao Tzu.

Lao Tzu understood Tao as the highest first principle and first cause of the world and called it "the mother of all things." He spoke of Tao as generating things and as “nourishing” them, denoting the latter with the concept of “de” (Good power). At the same time, Tao does not interfere with the natural course of things, giving them the opportunity to develop in a predetermined order. Lao Tzu expressed this idea as follows: "Tao does nothing, but nothing remains undone."

Deviation from Tao violates the primordial simplicity of the naturalness of being. Lao Tzu opposed to naturalness an artificial human society. In his opinion, human labor activity led him to a contradiction with the world, alienated him from nature. The Taoist thinker put inaction above action and preached the principle of "non-action" ("wu-wei") , following which always brings peace. People's commitment to knowledge and the creation of social institutions (family, state) interfere with Tao and generate all kinds of misfortune. Lao Tzu advocated a return to the golden age, when there was no arbitrary division into good and bad, since people lived in perfect harmony, did not interfere with the natural course of things and did not know such concepts as good and evil.

The principle of "non-action" expresses not passive inaction, but adherence to the natural order of things, agreement with one's own inner nature and implies non-interference in the nature of all that exists, refusal to alter, restructure the world. This principle works like water flowing around stones in its path. According to a prominent representative of Taoism Chuang Tzu(c. 369 - 286 BC), the mind that has mastered the principle of "wu-wei" flows like water, reflects like a mirror and repeats like an echo. The true way of human life is to fit into the world, and not to break the established order in it.

Thus, "non-action" aims at a sensitive, careful attitude towards nature, which is especially important today, when violations of ecological cycles and balance in nature are obvious. Nature, according to Taoism, does not exist in order to be studied and altered, but in order to be experienced, to derive pleasure from communication with it, to live in harmony with it.

Lao Tzu extended the principle of wu-wei to the field of social phenomena, noting that when the government is active, people become unhappy. He considered an absolutely wise ruler who does not interfere in anything and allows everything to take its course, in a natural way. therefore "The best ruler is the one about whom the people only know that he exists."

In the natural unity of man with nature, the Taoists saw the guarantee of a serene and happy life. Solving the problem of how to live better, they developed the doctrine of zhi. Zhi (literally: "breath") is a special kind of energy that flows through each person. A person must free himself from everything that pollutes and weakens Zhi, first of all, from vanity. The way through which you can feel zhi in yourself is meditation, during which you should expel any thoughts about personal aspirations and emotions.

Some of the Taoists tried, completely immersed in thought, to achieve unity with the primitive forces of nature. Others preferred witchcraft and magic to meditation, as well as elements of the yoga system such as restriction of food, physical and breathing exercises. Their goal was to achieve longevity and physical immortality. They conducted alchemical experiments on the invention of the elixir of life, were engaged in astrology and geomancy. As a result, the Taoists made a significant contribution to the development of science. Studies in alchemy led to the invention of gunpowder, and geomancy led to the invention of the compass.

In the second half of the 1st century BC. troubled times came in China: the ruling Zhou dynasty (11th-3rd centuries BC) was gradually degenerating, political changes followed one after another. During this period, the power of the military acquired great importance, and special attention was paid to the art of government. Many middle-class military personnel sought to become state decision-making advisers at the courts of ancient Chinese princes. For 13 years, the "traveling officer" ("yu shi") was Confucius,who hoped to convince the rulers of the need to observe moral principles. But Confucius's ideas were too moral to be accepted by the rulers of his time. Only after several centuries did they find support from the rulers of the Han dynasty. In the II century. BC. Confucianism became the official state ideology in China and played an extremely important role in Chinese culture and socio-political history.

Confucius (from Kun Fu-tzu, that is, "wise teacher Kun") is an ancient Chinese philosopher. Born 551 BC e. in an aristocratic but impoverished family. For a long time he worked in the royal book depository in Zhou, where, according to legend, he met and talked with Lao Tzu. Upon returning to his homeland, to the kingdom of Lu, he opened his own school and became the first professional teacher in the history of China. From p to. BC. he was revered as the Great Sage. The main source of information about the teachings of Confucius is "Lunyu" ("Judgments and Conversations"), which are records of his sayings and conversations made by his students and followers. In 1957, in the philosopher's hometown of Qufu, where his distant relatives still live, the annual celebrations in his temple resumed.

Confucius shared the traditional view of Heaven as the supreme power governing the world, and accepted faith in the spirits of ancestors. He considered the modern society to be inappropriate to what Heavens intended for all that exists. He idealized the past and advocated the restoration of communal-patriarchal relations in which people understood morality. It is through moral norms, and not by natural forces, as the Taoists argued, that society should, in his opinion, be governed. Compliance with morality, the principles of duty was defining for Confucius. Therefore, Confucian philosophy is primarily a teaching about morality.

All issues, including those related to public administration, which are daily involved in agricultural, commercial and financial affairs, were considered by Confucius from an ethical standpoint. His teaching was based on the idea of \u200b\u200ban ideal society that would correspond to ancient models. He saw his task in the revival of the principles of society that existed in ancient times, for then the earth was ruled by perfectly wise rulers who owned Tao. The philosopher understood Tao as the path of moral improvement and governance based on ethical standards.

Confucius urged to sacredly honor ancestors, observe ancient customs and ceremonies, during which the emperor - the Son of Heaven - played the role of a mediator between the infinity of space and the finiteness of earthly existence. Confucius saw a panacea for all troubles in unswerving adherence to the customs of antiquity, and he considered himself the bearer of forgotten ancient wisdom.

In Confucianism, a whole system of complex rituals was developed for all occasions. The fact that the Confucians strictly observed the established order is evidenced by the proverb that has come down to us about Confucius: "If the mat is not level, the Teacher will not sit on it."

In an ideal society, the principle of moral improvement should be harmoniously combined with activities aimed at streamlining the state. “If there is virtue in the heart,” Confucius said, “then there will be beauty in character. If there is beauty in character, then there will be harmony in the house. If there is harmony in the house, there will be order in the country. If there is order in the country, there will be peace on earth ”.

Confucius developed the concept noble husband (tszyun-tzu).A noble husband, or ideal person, is one who knows how to combine disinterestedness and sensitivity in private life with courtesy in public life. In his desires, he is not greedy and unlike "Little man" thinks not about profit, but about debt. A person is not born noble, but becomes one thanks to the education of the highest moral qualities in himself.

A noble husband should have Ren and follow Li in his behavior. The concepts of ren and li are the most important in the philosophy of Confucianism. Ren (literally: "philanthropy") - this is the law that determines the ethical relationship of people, gives an orientation to love for people. It is formulated as follows: "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others." Subsequently, this rule in the history of philosophy was expressed in various ways and received the name "The golden rule of morality"... The manifestations of Ren are justice, loyalty, sincerity, mercy, etc.

Lee (ceremonial, ceremonies) means ethical and ritual decency and represents a wide range of rules governing the behavior of people in various life situations. Without "li" social order is impossible and, consequently, the prosperity of the state. It is thanks to "li" that there are differences between the sovereign and his subjects. A properly organized state, according to Confucius, consists of the upper and lower classes: those who think and govern, and those who work and obey.

Confucius saw the main means of streamlining relations between members of society in straightening (correcting) names, which was aimed at ensuring that everything in society remained unchanged. Names - these are designations of the social, political and legal statuses of various persons in the hierarchical system of society and the state. Everyone must have a name corresponding to him, so that the sovereign is a sovereign, a dignitary is a dignitary, a father is a father, a son is a son, a subject is a subject. For all deviations from the norm, you should return to it. Thus, the meaning of Confucius's teachings about straightening of names consisted in the fact that each person must correspond to his purpose, social status in the state hierarchy.

So, for each member of society, Confucius determined a particular place in the social hierarchy, in accordance with which it was necessary to act and conduct business. The criterion for dividing society into upper and lower classes should have been not nobility of origin and wealth, but abilities, virtues, knowledge and labor. The philosopher was convinced that the economic prosperity and stability of both society and the individual depend to a large extent on the hard daily work and on the exertion of the abilities and efforts of each citizen.

Confucius considered the basis of the state to be a close-knit and well-organized family, and the state itself was understood by him as a big family. Therefore, a special place in his philosophy is occupied by the concept of xiao - filial piety, which determines the relationship between father and child, husband and wife, older brother and younger brother, older friend and younger friend, ruler and subjects. The essence xiao consists in the assertion that blind obedience to the will, word, desire of the elder is an elementary norm for the younger within the family and subjects within the state.

According to the Confucian teaching, any person in Ancient China could count on social assistance and a minimum of social benefits, subject to strict adherence to ethical standards recognized in the state, maintaining order, respecting and obeying the authority of elders and obeying the rulers.

Confucianism defined the way of life and social structure of the Chinese, and to this day it remains a living intellectual and spiritual tradition in China.

Control questions:

1. What are the features of ancient Indian philosophy?

2. What are the Vedas?

3. How do the orthodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy differ from the unorthodox ones?

4. What are the main ideas of Vedanta?

5. What is the difference between mimamsa and Vedanta?

6. What is the specificity of the Sankhya philosophical school?

7. How are the theory and practice of yoga related?

8. What is the difference between the philosophy of the Charvaks and the philosophy of all other ancient Indian schools of thought?

9. What is "samsara", "karma", "nirvana" in the philosophy of Buddhism?

10. What is the content of the Four Noble Truths?

11. What are the characteristic features of ancient Chinese philosophy?

12. What is "Tao" in ancient Chinese philosophy?

13. What is the meaning of the Taoist principle of "non-action"?

14. What is the essence of the philosophical teachings of Confucius?

15. What is the meaning of the Confucian straightening of names?

16. What is the principle of Xiao in Confucianism?

Main literature:

Introduction to philosophy: Textbook for universities. / Author: Frolov I.T. et al. 2nd ed., rev. and add. M., 2002.

Kanke V.A. Philosophy: Historical and Systematic Course. M., 2001.

Kuznetsov V.G., Kuznetsova I.D., Momdzhyan K.Kh., Mironov V.V. Philosophy. M., 2009.

B.V. Markov Philosophy. SPb., 2009.

Spirkin A.G. Philosophy. M., 2006.

Philosophy: textbook / ed. A.F. Zotova, V.V. Mironova, A.V. Razin. M., 2009.

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Anthology of World Philosophy. T. 1. Part 1. M., 1969.

Vasiliev L.S. History of the religions of the East. M., 1983.

Ancient Chinese philosophy: Collection of texts: In 2 volumes. M., 1972.

Manu's laws. M., 1960.

Lukyanov A.E. Lao Tzu (philosophy of early Taoism). M., 1991.

Lukyanov A.E. Formation of philosophy in the East. M., 1989.

Lysenko V.G. An Introduction to Buddhism: Early Buddhist Philosophy. M., 1994.

L.Z. Nemirovskaya Philosophy. M., 1996.

Oliver M. History of Philosophy. Minsk, 1999.

Perelomov L.S. Confucius: life, teaching, destiny. M., 1993.

E.A. Torchinov Taoism. M., 1993.

Chatterjee S., Dutta D. Indian philosophy. M., 1994.

Kuznetsov V.G. Dictionary of philosophical terms. M., 2009.

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Databases, information and reference and search systems:

Portal "Humanitarian Education" http://www.humanities.edu.ru/

Federal portal "Russian Education" http://www.edu.ru/

Federal repository "Unified collection of digital educational resources" http://school-collection.edu.ru/

In the entire history of China, no one has been able to outshine the glory of Confucius.

He was neither a discoverer nor an inventor, but every inhabitant of the planet knows his name thanks to his outstanding philosophical teachings.

From the biography of Confucius:

Little is known about this outstanding person, but this does not prevent us from believing that Confucius is an influential figure in the development of China.

Confucius (real name - Kun Qiu) is an ancient sage and philosopher of China. He was born in about 551 BC. e. His mother, Yan Zhengzai, was a concubine and was only 17 years old at the time. At that time Shulian He's father was already 63 years old, he was a descendant of Wei-tzu, the commander of the emperor. The boy was given the name Kong Qiu at birth. When the child was one and a half years old, his father died.

After the death of the father of little Confucius, serious quarrels took place between the two wives and a young concubine, which forced the boy's mother to leave the house. After moving to Qufu City, Yan Zhengzai began to live with her son herself. Confucius had a difficult childhood, from an early age he had to work. Yan Zhengzai's mother talked about his ancestors and their great activities. This was a huge incentive for the return of the great title that had been lost. Listening to the stories of his mother, about his father and his noble family, Confucius understood that to be worthy of a kind, it was necessary to engage in self-education.

To begin with, he studied the basis of the education system for young aristocrats - the six arts. In this he succeeded, and he was appointed to the position of an official in charge of barns, then - an official in charge of livestock. He got married at about 19 years old and had two children.

He began his successful career at about 20 years old. + At the same time, Confucius received recognition and created a whole teaching - Confucianism, which was of great importance for the development of China. He founded the first university and wrote rules for all classes. He taught 4 disciplines: literature, language, politics and morality in his own private school, which accepted everyone who wanted independence from the class and material wealth.

Around 528 BC, his mother dies, and according to tradition, he must leave government work for 3 years. During this period, Confucius completely immersed himself in thinking about creating an ideal state.

When Confucius was 44 years old, he took over as the seat of the principality of Lu. He was very active in his post, he was an experienced and skillful politician. + Soon, great changes began in the country. The stable rule of the dynasties was replaced by corrupt greedy officials, and civil strife began. Realizing his hopelessness, Confucius resigned and, together with his students, set out to travel around China. During this time, he tried to convey his ideas to the governments of different provinces. Confucius began to preach philosophical doctrine together with his followers. His idea was to preach knowledge to the poor, plowmen, old people and young.

For his training, Confucius took a symbolic fee, lived on funds allocated by wealthy students. He was engaged in teaching new students and systematizing the ancient books of Shi Jin and I Jin. The students themselves compiled the book of Lun Yu. It became the foundational book of Confucianism, which contains brief statements, notes, actions of their teacher.

At about 60 years old, he finished his wanderings, Confucius returns to his homeland, which he does not leave until his death. The rest of his life he works on his creations: "Books of Songs", "Books of Changes" and many others. Interestingly, according to the estimates of scientists, he had about 3,000 students, but by name there are about 26.

Although Confucianism is considered a religion, it has nothing to do with theology. It reflects the principles of creating a harmonious society. The main rule formulated by Confucius is: "Do not do to a person what you do not wish for yourself." + Confucius died in the 73rd year, before that he predicted his imminent death, which he told his disciples. He died in about 479, and there is an opinion that before that he had just slept for 7 days. He was buried in the cemetery, where it was supposed to bury his followers. + On the site of the house after his death, a temple was built, which was rebuilt more than once, its area was increased. The House of Confucius has been under the protection of UNESCO since 1994. It is customary in China to give the Confucius Prize for Achievement in Education.

Of course, legends have been partially created around the life and biography of Confucius, but one should not underestimate the fact of the influence of his teachings on future generations.

He was one of the first to propose the idea of \u200b\u200bbuilding a highly moral and harmonious society. His teachings found such a wide response among the people that he was accepted as an ideological norm at the state level, and it remained popular for almost 20 centuries. The lessons of Confucius are easy for everyone to understand - which is probably why they inspire people very effectively.

Confucius was an ordinary person, but his teachings are often called religion. Although questions of theology and theology as such are not important for Confucianism at all. All teaching is based on morality, ethics and life principles of human-human interaction.

25 interesting facts from the life of Confucius:

1. The family tree of Confucius, with a history of about 2500 years, is the longest in the world. Today the tree covers 83 generations of the Confucius clan.

2.Confucius is also known under the names: "The Great Sage", "The Wisest Deceased Teacher", "The First Teacher" and "Forever the Model Teacher".

3. Qiu ("Qiū", literally "Hill") is the real name of Confucius, given to him at birth. The second name of the teacher was Zhong-ni (仲尼 Zhòngní), that is, "The second of the clay."

4. Confucianism, founded by Confucius and developed by his followers, is one of the most widespread and most ancient teachings in China and throughout the world.

5. The laws issued by Confucius were based on his teachings and were so successful that the crime in the kingdom of Lu came to naught.

6. Confucius believed that every citizen should respect and honor their ancestors.

7. At the age of 19, Confucius married a girl named Ki-koan-shi from the Qi family, who lived in the Song kingdom. A year later, they had a son, who was named Li.

8. At the age of 50 (501 BC) Confucius took over as a judge. In his hands, the entire law and order of the kingdom of Lu was concentrated.

9. Students of Confucius, based on the statements and conversations of the teacher, compiled the book "Sy Shu" or "Four Books".

10. Confucius's "golden rule" says: "Do not do to others what you do not wish for yourself." He is also credited with the saying: "What you do not choose yourself, do not impose on others."

11. The name "Confucius" arose at the end of the 16th century in the writings of European missionaries, who thus in Latin (Latin Confucius) transmitted the combination Kun Fu-tzu (Chinese ex. 孔夫子, pinyin: Kǒngfūzǐ), although the name 孔子 (Kǒngzǐ) with the same meaning "Teacher [of the clan / surname] Kun."

12. According to Confucius, a person must overcome himself, cultivating a personality through morality and humanity, and destroy the barbarian and egoist in himself.

13. According to the Confucius Family Genealogy Committee operating in Hong Kong and China, genealogical books listing Confucius' offspring are considered the largest in the world: they have 43 thousand pages and include the names of more than 2 million people.

14. Confucius served as judge for five years, but the machinations of spiteful critics led to his resignation in 496 BC.

15. Confucius returned to teaching and in the next 12 years as a teacher won universal love and respect.

16. He believed that the country's elite would become a positive example for the rest of the nation. Thus, peace and harmony will reign in society.

17.He attributed honesty, benevolence, humility, politeness and sanity to the most important human qualities. People's leaders were encouraged by Confucius to be exemplars of good behavior.

18. Confucius taught students the ideas of ancient Chinese sages, which he studied himself in order to achieve reforms in the government, which at that time was mired in corruption and autocracy.

19. Confucius's mother died when he was 23. A year later (in 527 BC) Confucius changed his career and took up teaching.

20. When Confucius was one and a half years old, his father Shulian He, a military officer, died. The boy grew up in poverty, but was able to get a good education.

21. At the age of 60, Confucius left his labor activity and returned to his small homeland. After 12 years, November 21, 479 BC. he died.

22. One of the most prominent students of Confucius and his spiritual heir is the Chinese philosopher Mengzi. The thinker's favorite student was Yan Hui.

23. Several tens of thousands of descendants of the "teacher of all Chinese" live outside China in Korea (34 thousand) and Taiwan.

24. From early childhood, Confucius had to work hard to support his family. Having started as a simple worker, he won the favor of an official responsible for the issuance and reception of grain. Later, cattle also came under his jurisdiction.

25. Confucius (birth name Kun Qiu) was born in 551 BC. in the city of Zeou (now the city of Qufu in the Shandong province), which belonged to the kingdom of Lu.

25 wisest quotes from Confucius:

1. In fact, life is simple, but we persistently complicate it.

2. Three things never come back - time, word, opportunity. Therefore: do not waste time, choose words, do not miss the opportunity.

3. In ancient times, people studied in order to improve themselves. Nowadays they study in order to surprise others.

4. The noble soul is serene. The low person is always preoccupied.

5. He is not great who has never fallen, but he is great who fell and got up.

6. Intemperance in small things will ruin a great cause.

7. If they spit in your back, then you are ahead.

8. Three paths lead to knowledge: the path of reflection is the noblest path, the path of imitation is the easiest path and the path of experience is the most bitter path.

9. Happiness is when you are understood, great happiness is when you are loved, real happiness is when you love.

10. People in ancient times did not like to talk a lot. They considered it a shame for themselves not to keep up with their own words.

11.Gemstone cannot be polished without rubbing. Likewise, a person cannot become successful without a sufficient number of difficult attempts.

12. Choose a job you like and you won't have to work a single day in your life.

13. Try to be even a little kinder, and you will see that you will not be able to do the wrong thing.

14. You can curse the darkness all your life, or you can light a small candle.

15. Beauty is in everything, but not everyone is given to see it.

16. We take advice in drops, but we distribute it in buckets.

17. In a country where there is order, be bold both in actions and in speech. In a country where there is no order, be bold in actions, but circumspect in speeches.

18. Give instruction only to the one who seeks knowledge, having discovered his ignorance.

19 A noble person makes demands on himself, a low person makes demands on others.

20. Misfortune has come - man has given birth to him, happiness has come - man has raised him.

21. I am not upset if people do not understand me - I am upset if I do not understand people.

22. Before you take revenge, dig two graves.

23. If you hate, then you have been defeated.

24. Reversing bad habits is possible only today, not tomorrow.

25. Only when the cold comes does it become clear that the pines and cypresses are the last to lose their dress.

Temple of Confucius

from Wikipedia, photo from the Internet