Development of abstract thinking of schoolchildren in technology lessons. Development of critical thinking in high school students in the process of learning speaking Thinking of high school students
Senior secondary school students have a poor understanding of figures in space, the location of straight lines and planes.
The ability to navigate in space plays a significant role in all areas of human activity. A person’s orientation in time and space is a necessary condition for his social existence, a form of reflection of the surrounding world, a condition for successful cognition and active transformation of reality.
Free handling of spatial images unites different types of educational and work activities and is one of the professionally important qualities, therefore secondary schools, vocational schools, universities, along with the formation of professional skills in students, set the task of developing spatial thinking in them.
Spatial thinking is an essential component in preparing for practical activities in many specialties.
The importance of spatial thinking in educational and professional activities.
INstructurein the general mental development of a person, a special place is occupied by imaginative thinking, which ensures the formation of generalized ideas about the surrounding world and its social values. The ability to create images and operate with them is a distinctive feature of human intelligence. It consists in the ability to arbitrarily update images based on given visual material, modify them under the influence of various conditions, freely transform and, on this basis, create new images that are significantly different from the original ones.
Spatial thinking as a type of figurative thinking plays an important role not only in mastering knowledge of the fundamentals of science, but also in many areas of work activity.
In the educational and work activities of schoolchildren, the formation of their thinking is significantly influenced by the use of various sign systems.This occurs when mastering the fundamentals of science, as well as when mastering technical knowledge, labor skills and abilities. The ability to create spatial images and operate with them largely determines success in artistic, graphic and constructive-technical activities, when it acts as an independent activity. Students develop a strong interest and inclination towards those types of activities where this ability is most fully realized.
1) In science and technology, graphic modeling is widely used, which is closely related to the mathematization and formalization of many areas of knowledge. There are two ways to use graphical modeling:
first - creation of a visual system in which the shape of selected signs or any other means of display resembles the displayed objects. However, in many cases, due to the diversity and differences in the content of specific objects, this turns out to be difficult to achieve;
second way - reflection of the properties of objects through conventional signs that do not in any way resemble the displayed objects, but make it possible to identify their most significant connections and dependencies hidden from direct observation.
Graphic modeling is widely used in mastering technical knowledge. Drawings, graphs, electrical diagrams, instruction cards are used to describe various technical objects and technological processes. Drawing is the language of technology. Being a visual image, it models various properties and relationships inherent in technical objects. Operating with images of technical objects is carried out, as a rule, based on spatial diagrams, which is the most important feature of technical thinking.
To operate in a technical way means not only to have an idea of a specific object that is in a static state in space, but also to see it in movement, change, interaction with other technical objects, i.e. in dynamics. Any graphic model is a planar image from which it is required to recreate the spatial position of a real technical object.
2) In many industries (instrument-making, electrical and radio engineering) the tendency to schematize and formalize images is noticeably increasing. When designing technological documentation, the idea is put forward of replacing descriptions of typical technological operations with conventional signs and designations, which makes it possible to create a unified system of graphic images in all technical and technological documentation.
3) In drawing There is a desire to combine the subject content of images with the widespread use of iconic models, which conditionally replace the subject of the image and have lost any visual analogy with it. More universal methods of depiction are being introduced, making it possible to indicate the structural features of objects hidden from direct observation, simplifying the methods of their depiction.
All of the above is reflected incontent and methods of learning school knowledge. When mastering knowledge in many academic subjects in modern schools, along with visual images of specific objects, conventional images in the form of spatial diagrams, graphs, diagrams, etc. are widely used.
Mastering modern scientific knowledge and successful work in many types of theoretical and practical activities are inextricably linked with operating with spatial images.
In the assimilation of knowledge, the role of graphic material has increased: the scope of its application has expanded significantly, its functions have changed significantly, and new means of visualization have been introduced. Many of the images used are not just an auxiliary, illustrative tool, but an independent source of acquiring new knowledge. Instead of various formulations, verbal explanations, and definitions, graphic models of the processes and phenomena being studied are widely used in the form of various spatial diagrams and mathematical expressions, which makes it possible to more accurately and economically describe the processes and phenomena being studied.
Thus, the verbal form of knowledge transfer has ceased to be universal. Along with it, a system of conventional symbols and signs, various spatial schemes, which are specific “linguistic” material, are widely used as an independent system.
Changes in the content of acquired knowledge are reflected inteaching methods.
Currently, the scope of application of this method of assimilation, in which the formation of a system of concepts occurs through a gradual generalization of specific individual facts, has been significantly narrowed. The most widely applicable is another way, when the basic patterns underlying the acquired material are first revealed, and then specific material is analyzed on their basis.
The psychological and pedagogical foundations of this path of assimilation were most fully developed by V.V. Davydov in his concept of meaningful abstraction and fruitfully developed in the works of his collaborators: L.I. Aidarova, A.K. Markova, G.G. Mikulina, L.M. Friedman and others. They proposed and experimentally developed a way of learning in which students first master the natural connections and relationships identified on the basis of theoretical analysis, and then explore their manifestation in specific situations of the reality they are studying. This significantly changes the principles of constructing educational material and developing exercises. With thisway of teaching The formation of generalizations is based not on the comparison of particular individual cases, but on the identification in the material to be learned of its original “cell” - general theoretical dependencies. These dependencies are clearly recorded by a unique spatial-functional model, which is a symbolic image.
In this paragraph, the importance of spatial thinking in various types of educational and professional activities was considered. Increasing the theoretical content of knowledge, using the modeling method and structural analysis in the study of phenomena of objective reality - all this leads to the fact that a person constantly creates spatial images in the process of activity, which characterizes spatial thinking.
The structure of spatial thinking
Spatial thinking is considered as a multi-level, hierarchical whole, multifunctional at its core.
Creation images andoperating they are closely interconnected processes. At the heart of each of them is the activity of presentation.
When creating any image, the visual basis on which the image arises is subject to mental transformation. When operating with an image, the image already created on this basis is mentally modified, often in conditions of complete abstraction from it.
Underspatial thinking This implies free manipulation of spatial images created on various visual bases, their transformation taking into account the requirements of the task.
Indicators of the development of spatial thinking:
The main indicator of the development of spatial thinking is takentype of image operation . In order for this indicator to be reliable, two more closely related indicators are used, namelybreadth of operation Andcompleteness of the image .
Type of surgery image there is a way available to the student to transform the created image.
The creation of images ensures the accumulation of ideas, which in relation to thinking are the initial basis, a necessary condition for its implementation. The richer and more varied the stock of spatial representations, the more advanced the methods for creating them, the easier the process of operating with them will be.
The whole variety of cases of operating with spatial images can be reduced to three main ones: leading to a change in the position of an imaginary object (type I), a change in its structure (type II) and a combination of these transformations (type III). Let us dwell on the description of each type of operation.
First type operating is characterized by the fact that the initial image, already created on a graphical visual basis, in the process of solving the problem is mentally modified in accordance with the conditions of the problem. These changes mainly concernspatial position and do not affect the structural features of the image. Typical cases of such operations are various mental rotations and movements of an already created image.
Second type operation is characterized by the fact that the original image under the influence of the task is transformed mainlyby structure . This is achieved through various transformations of the original image by mental regrouping of its constituent elements using various techniques of superposition, combination, addition, etc. With the second type of operation, the image changes so much that it becomes little similar to the original one. The degree of novelty of the created image in this case is much higher than that observed in the first type of operation, since the original image here undergoes a more radical transformation.
Third type operation is characterized by the fact that transformations of the original image are carried out for a long time and repeatedly. They represent a whole series of mental actions, successively replacing each other and aimed at transforming the original image simultaneously both in spatial position and in structure.
A comparative analysis of three types of operating with spatial images shows that the operation can be carried out in relation to different elements in the structure of the image: its shape, position, and their combinations.
The identified types of operating with spatial images and their accessibility to students are considered as one of the important and very
reliable indicators characterizing the level of development of spatial thinking.
As studies have shown, the type of surgery available to a student is sustainable. It manifests itself in the process of solving problems of various contents, when operating with different graphic images (visual, projection, conditionally symbolic), when choosing a method for solving a problem, etc.
In accordance with three types of surgery, there arethree levels development of spatial thinking (low, medium, high).
Breadth of operation there is a degree of freedom to manipulate the image, taking into account the graphic basis on which the image was originally created.
The ease and speed of transition from one image to another, the number of exercises required, the nature and extent of assistance are indicators of the breadth of image manipulation.
The use of indicators such as breadth and type of image manipulation makes it possible to measure the level of development of spatial thinking in two different directions: longitudinal (horizontal) and transverse (vertical).
Operating in a spatial manner presupposes that students mentally transform a given graphical visualization in three closely interrelated directions: in shape, size, and spatial position. The reflection of these signs in the image, mentally transformed, characterizes the completeness of the image.
Completeness of the image characterizes its structure, i.e. a set of elements, connections between them, their dynamic relationship. The image reflects not only the composition of the elements included in its structure (shape, size), but also their spatial arrangement (relative to a given plane or relative position of the elements).
The completeness of the image is an important indicator of the development of representational activity. That is why the type, breadth of operation and completeness of the image are accepted as the main indicators of the development of spatial thinking.
The ability to isolate spatial relationships and operate with them does not directly depend on the acquisition of knowledge.
In ontogenesis, sensory activity, on the basis of which spatial thinking is formed, has several stages. First, children learn to distinguish individual objects by their shape and size, and to carry out operations of comparison, generalization, and classification on this basis. By highlighting one or another spatial feature as a leading one, they generalize objects in accordance with the highlighted feature. So, for example, they distribute objects according to their geometric shape (round, square, rectangular, mixed, etc.), assessing the ratio of their sides and angles; make quantitative estimates of quantities, on the basis of which they form ideas: “more, less, different in size”; “higher, lower, different in height”; “longer-shorter-different in length”; “wider-already-different in width”; “thicker, thinner, different in thickness.” Often, the analysis of objects is carried out simultaneously according to a number of parameters, since their totality (combination) determines the qualitative originality of the object.
During ontogenesis, children continue to navigate in space for a very long time, distributing surrounding objects relative to the position of their own body.
Psychological research confirms that by the time children enter school they are ready to master geometric space. Moreover, the very nature of children's perception determines the possibility of arbitrarily changing observation positions.
During ontogenesis, spatial thinking develops in the depths of those forms of thinking that reflect the natural stages of general intellectual development. First, it is formed in the system of visual-effective thinking. Then, in the most developed and independent forms, it appears in the context of figurative thinking.
Tasks that form spatial thinking
The transition from planimetry to the study of stereometry causes great difficulties for students, and they are associated with the fact that this course lacks algorithms and with the fact that schoolchildren have undeveloped spatial concepts.
The tasks that should be used to form spatial concepts in schoolchildren should be of two types: a) tasks to create spatial images;
b) tasks for operating with spatial images.
1. The relative position of lines in space.
1) Straight And located in different half-planes And . How is the line located? relatively straight ?
2) How is the straight line located? relatively straight cubed 
?
3) Plane And intersect in a straight line .Through point A of the plane and a point in the plane a direct line was drawn (points A, B do not lie on a straight line). How is the line located? relatively ?
2. Parallelism of a straight line and a plane.
1) A straight line is parallel to two given planes. What can be said about the relative position of these planes?
2) Two lines are parallel to the plane. Are they parallel to each other? Is there a line in the plane parallel to both given lines?
3) A straight line intersects two sides of a triangle. Does it intersect its plane?
3. Parallelism of planes.
1) Are there any unnecessary words in the formulation below: “If two intersecting lines of one plane are respectively parallel to two intersecting lines of another plane, then the planes are parallel”?
2) The height and base of the triangle are respectively parallel to the two sides of the rectangle: the planes of the figures do not coincide. How is the plane of the triangle located relative to the plane of the rectangle?
4. Perpendicularity of a straight line and a plane.
1) Line p is perpendicular to two sides of the triangle. Is it perpendicular to its height?
2) An infinite number of lines intersect a lineqat right angles. Do these lines belong to the same plane?
3) The straight line is not perpendicular to the plane. Is it inclined to this plane?
5. Other tasks:
1) Find the error:
ABC - line of intersection of two intersecting planes And .
2) The pictures show pyramids. DirectS.A.AndS.K.respectively perpendicular to the planes of their bases. Name:
a) the faces of the pyramid perpendicular to the plane of the base;
b) flat right angles.
3) Are they straightM.C.AndPKparallel in space?
4) It is useful to propose tasks for recognizing spatial objects in non-standard situations. So, for example: “Is there a quadrangular pyramid whose two opposite faces are perpendicular to the base of the pyramid?”
5) Development tasks. For example: from the proposed configurations, indicate which are the cube scans?
During lessons, it is advisable to look at different images of the same body. For example:
a) various images of a cube;
B) various images of the tetrahedron.
6) Complete the image of the cube:
These problems can be used in elective geometry classes at school.
We can conclude that the verbal form of knowledge transfer has ceased to be universal. Along with it, a system of conventional symbols and signs, various spatial schemes, which are specific “linguistic” material, are widely used as an independent system.
Literature:
1. Atanasyan L.S., Bazylev V.T. Geometry in 2 parts. Part 1. M.: Education, 1986.
2. Age and individual characteristics of students’ imaginative thinking / Ed. I.S. Yakimanskaya. M.: Education, 1989.
3. Dalinger V.A. Methodology for developing spatial thinking in students when teaching geometry: a textbook. Omsk 1992.
4. Dalinger V.A. A drawing teaches you to think // Mathematics at school No. 4, 1990.
5. Kaplunovich I.Ya. Development of the structure of spatial thinking // Issue. Psychol. No. 1 1986
6. Mukhin Yu.N., Tolstopyatov V.P. Analytical stereometry: met. resolution Sverdlovsk 1991
7. Yakimanskaya I.S. Development of spatial thinking in schoolchildren. M.: Education, 1986.
First of all, thinking is the highest cognitive process. It represents the generation of new knowledge, an active form of creative reflection and transformation of reality by man. Thinking generates a result that does not exist either in reality itself or in the subject at a given moment in time. Thinking (in elementary forms it is also present in animals) can also be understood as the acquisition of new knowledge, the creative transformation of existing ideas.
The difference between thinking and other psychological processes is also that it is almost always associated with the presence of a problem situation, a task that needs to be solved, and an active change in the conditions in which this task is given. Thinking, unlike perception, goes beyond the limits of the sensory data and expands the boundaries of knowledge. In thinking based on sensory information, certain theoretical and practical conclusions are made. It reflects existence not only in the form of individual things, phenomena and their properties, but also determines the connections that exist between them, which most often are not given directly to man in his very perception. The properties of things and phenomena, the connections between them are reflected in thinking in a generalized form, in the form of laws and entities.
In practice, thinking as a separate mental process does not exist; it is invisibly present in all other cognitive processes: perception, attention, imagination, memory, speech. The highest forms of these processes are necessarily associated with thinking, and the degree of its participation in these cognitive processes determines their level of development.
Thinking is the movement of ideas that reveals the essence of things. Its result is not an image, but some thought, an idea. A specific result of thinking can be a concept - a generalized reflection of a class of objects in their most general and essential features.
Thinking is a special kind of theoretical and practical activity that involves a system of actions and operations included in it of an indicative, research, transformative and cognitive nature.
Let's consider the types of thinking:
Theoretical conceptual thinking is such thinking, using which a person, in the process of solving a problem, turns to concepts, performs actions in the mind, without directly dealing with the experience gained through the senses. He discusses and searches for a solution to a problem from beginning to end in his mind, using ready-made knowledge obtained by other people, expressed in conceptual form, judgments, and inferences. Theoretical conceptual thinking is characteristic of scientific theoretical research.
Theoretical figurative thinking differs from conceptual thinking in that the material that a person uses here to solve a problem is not concepts, judgments or inferences, but images. They are either directly retrieved from memory or creatively recreated by the imagination. This kind of thinking is used by workers in literature, art, and in general people of creative work who deal with images. In the course of solving mental problems, the corresponding images are mentally transformed so that a person, as a result of manipulating them, can directly see the solution to the problem that interests him.
Both types of thinking considered - theoretical conceptual and theoretical figurative - in reality, as a rule, coexist. They complement each other quite well, revealing to a person different but interconnected aspects of existence. Theoretical conceptual thinking provides, although abstract, but at the same time the most accurate, generalized reflection of reality. Theoretical figurative thinking allows us to obtain a specific subjective perception of it, which is no less real than the objective-conceptual one. Without one or another type of thinking, our perception of reality would not be as deep and versatile, accurate and rich in various shades as it actually is.
A distinctive feature of the following type of visual thinking is that the thought process in it is directly related to the thinking person’s perception of the surrounding reality and cannot be accomplished without it. Thoughts are visual and figurative, a person is tied to reality, and the images themselves necessary for thinking are presented in his short-term and operative memory (in contrast, images for theoretical figurative thinking are extracted from long-term memory and then transformed).
The last type of thinking is visual-effective. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that the thinking process itself is a practical transformative activity carried out by a person with real objects. The main condition for solving the problem in this case is the correct actions with the appropriate objects. This type of thinking is widely represented among people engaged in real production work, the result of which is the creation of any specific material product.
Let us note that the listed types of thinking also act as levels of its development. Theoretical thinking is considered more perfect than practical thinking, and conceptual thinking represents a higher level of development than figurative thinking.
Senior school age is characterized by the continuing development of children’s general and special abilities on the basis of the main leading activities: learning, communication and work. The study develops general intellectual abilities, especially conceptual theoretical thinking. This occurs through the assimilation of concepts, improving the ability to use them, and reason logically and abstractly. A significant increase in subject knowledge creates a good basis for the subsequent development of skills in those types of activities where this knowledge is practically necessary.
In adolescence and early adolescence, the formation of cognitive processes, and above all thinking, is completed. During these years, thought is finally combined with the word, as a result of which inner speech is formed as the main means of organizing thinking and regulating other cognitive processes. Intelligence in its highest manifestations becomes verbal, and speech becomes intellectualized. Full-fledged theoretical thinking arises. Along with this, there is an active process of forming scientific concepts that contain the foundations of a person’s scientific worldview within the framework of the sciences that are studied at school. Mental actions and operations with concepts, based on the logic of reasoning and distinguishing verbal-logical, abstract thinking from visual-effective and visual-figurative, acquire their final forms. Is it possible to speed up all these processes, and if so, how to do this?
It seems that from the point of view of the psychological and pedagogical development opportunities that middle and high school students have, from the standpoint of improving teaching and learning, this question should be answered in the affirmative. The intellectual development of children can be accelerated in three directions: conceptual structure of thinking, verbal intelligence and internal action plan. The development of thinking in high school can be facilitated by this type of activity, which is still, unfortunately, poorly represented in secondary schools, as rhetoric, understood as the ability to plan, compose and deliver public speeches, conduct a discussion, and skillfully answer questions. Various forms of written presentation of thoughts, used not only in language and literature classes (in the form of traditional presentation or essay), but also in other school subjects, can be of great benefit. They can well be used in mathematics classes, in particular in stereometry, when solving a construction problem at the stage of analyzing the problem conditions and at the stage of researching possible solutions. It is important to evaluate not only the content, but also the form of presentation of the material.
Accelerated formation of scientific concepts can be achieved in classes in special subjects, where relevant concepts are introduced and studied. When introducing any concept, including a scientific one, to a student, it is important to pay attention to the following points:
a) almost every concept, including scientific ones, has several meanings;
b) ordinary words from everyday language that are used to define scientific concepts are polysemantic and accurate enough to determine the scope and content of a non-scientific concept. Therefore, any definitions of concepts through words of ordinary language can only be approximate;
c) the noted properties allow, as a completely normal phenomenon, the existence of different definitions of the same concepts that completely coincide with each other, and this applies even to the most exact sciences, such as mathematics and physics. A scientist who uses the corresponding concepts is usually clear about what he is talking about, and therefore he does not always care that the definitions of all scientific concepts without exception are the same;
d) for the same person as he develops, as well as science and the scientists representing it as they penetrate into the essence of the phenomena being studied, the volume and content of concepts naturally change. When we pronounce the same words over a significant period of time, we usually give them slightly different meanings that change over time. It follows from this that in middle and high school students should not mechanically learn and repeat rigid definitions of scientific concepts. Rather, we should ensure that students themselves find and define these concepts. This will undoubtedly speed up the process of developing the conceptual structure of thinking in high school students. The formation of an internal plan of action can be helped by special exercises aimed at ensuring that the same actions are performed as often as possible not with real, but with imaginary objects, that is, in the mind. For example, in mathematics classes, students should be encouraged to count not on paper or using a calculator, but to themselves, to find and clearly formulate the principle and successive steps in solving a certain problem before they practically begin to implement the solution found. We must adhere to the rule: until the decision is fully thought through in the mind, until a plan for the actions included in it has been drawn up and until it has been verified for logic, one should not begin to implement the decision in practice. These principles and rules can be used in classes in all school subjects without exception, and then students will form an internal plan of action faster.
A characteristic feature of adolescence is the readiness and ability for many different types of learning, both in practical terms (labor skills) and theoretical ones (the ability to think, reason, use concepts). Another trait that is fully revealed for the first time precisely in adolescence is the tendency to experiment, which manifests itself, in particular, in a reluctance to take everything for granted. Teenagers exhibit broad cognitive interests associated with the desire to double-check everything on their own and personally verify the truth. By the beginning of adolescence, this desire decreases somewhat, and instead of it, more trust in other people's experience appears, based on a reasonable attitude towards its source.
Adolescence is characterized by increased intellectual activity, which is stimulated not only by the natural age-related curiosity of adolescents, but also by the desire to develop, demonstrate to others their abilities, and receive high appreciation from them. In this regard, teenagers in public strive to take on the most difficult and prestigious tasks, often demonstrating not only highly developed intelligence, but also extraordinary abilities. They are characterized by an emotionally negative affective reaction to too simple tasks. Such tasks do not attract them, and they refuse to perform them for reasons of prestige.
The increased intellectual and labor activity of adolescents is based not only on the above motives. Behind all this one can see the natural interest and increased curiosity of children of this age. The questions that a teenager asks adult children, teachers and parents are often quite deep and go to the very core of things.
Teenagers can formulate hypotheses, reason speculatively, explore and compare different alternatives when solving the same problems. The sphere of cognitive, including educational, interests of adolescents goes beyond the boundaries of school and takes the form of cognitive amateur activity - the desire to search and acquire knowledge, to develop useful skills. Teenagers find activities and books that match their interests and provide intellectual satisfaction. The desire for self-education is a characteristic feature of both adolescence and early adolescence.
The thinking of a teenager is characterized by the desire for broad generalizations. Independence of thinking is manifested in the independence of choosing a method of behavior. Teenagers and especially young men accept only what they personally think is reasonable, appropriate and useful.
“Development of social thinking of high school students in the process of studying social sciences...”
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State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Ural State Pedagogical University"
As a manuscript
Pryamikova Elena Viktorovna
Development of social thinking of high school students in the process
social studies
22.00.06 – sociology of culture, spiritual life
Dissertation for the candidate's scientific degree
sociological sciences
Scientific director
Doctor of Philosophy, Professor
Rubina L.Ya.
Ekaterinburg
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………. 3
CHAPTER 1. METHODOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF STUDY
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL THINKING OF STUDENTS
SENIOR CLASSES IN THE PROCESS OF STUDYING
SOCIAL SCIENCES……………………. 101.1. The essence of social thinking and its main characteristics 10 ……………………………………………………
1.2. Features of the development of social thinking in the process of interaction between teacher and students in the study of social sciences. 44……………….……………………………...
Conclusions on the first chapter………………………………………………………. 69
CHAPTER 2. OPPORTUNITIES FOR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
THINKING IN THE TEACHING PROCESS
SOCIAL SCIENCES IN HIGH SCHOOL
SECONDARY SCHOOL………………………………………………………. 712.1. Features of social thinking and social competence of high school students 71 ……………………………...
2.2. A critical model of teaching social studies as an opportunity to develop social-critical thinking109.....
Conclusions on the second chapter …………………………………………………….. 128 CONCLUSION …………………………………………………………… …….. 131 LITERATURE ………………………………………………………………………………… 133 APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………… …………………. 153 Introduction Relevance research topics.
Modern society, in a situation of permanent transformation, is changing the living conditions and consciousness of people, making significant adjustments to social thinking. The diversity of the world, the interaction of communities with different, sometimes contradictory value systems, requires the individual to understand and accept these features. The acceleration of the pace of change in the conditions of human life does not allow him to isolate himself within the framework of a given stable worldview. Recognition of the limitations of one’s views and ideas about society and the possibility of revising them, independence of thinking in solving economic, social and political problems becomes an important part of an individual’s life. At the same time, the idea that society requires rational, critical thinking from individuals is partly incorrect. Society often tries to impose its own choices on the individual: in political life there is a struggle for every voter, in economic life - for every consumer, often without taking into account the interests and desires of the latter. It is in modern society that the term “human robotization” arises. Rather, we should talk about the need for such independent, critical thinking for the individual himself in order to withstand the pressure of various spheres of social life. In particular, the increase in individual freedom is associated not only and not so much with the expansion of a person’s capabilities in society, but with his ability to realize them, which is most clearly manifested in the transforming Russian society.
The development of social thinking is an important element in the process of forming a person’s culture and determines his social competence. The main problem for young Russians is the need to develop models of behavior in a free democratic society, which high school students cannot borrow from their parents and, due to the general educational situation (at school and in the family), cannot create themselves.
The increasing importance of social sciences in modern conditions is recognized by everyone. “Education, especially humanitarian and socio-economic, is an important factor in the formation of a new quality of society, the specific problems of which, in the context of Russia’s transition to a rule of law state, are caused by a change in the system of values and social priorities. Education should become the most important factor in the formation of new life attitudes of the individual.”1 The complexity of the problem tasks imposes special requirements for its implementation. The question remains open about ways to develop independent, critical thinking. The one-directional process of interaction between teacher and student remains characteristic of the Russian school: from teacher to student, from knower to unknower.
High school students are not recognized as subjects endowed with experience and possessing their own value potential; they are viewed as “not yet mature adults.” The philosophical and worldview approach to education, on which great hopes are placed, does not always create an environment of interaction where the student can be active and competent due to a possible disconnect from the real experience of students.
Given the large amount of journalistic and scientific material available to students, the teacher is only one source of information. The possibilities of his influence on the development of social thinking and social competence of students are determined solely by his professionalism and the methods that he uses in the teaching process, and not by his monopoly on the possession of information. At the same time, the teacher may be one of the few who is able to discuss with the Conceptual basis of the program for the modernization of humanitarian and socio-economic education in Russia for 2004-2008 (draft). All-Russian meeting of heads of departments of humanitarian and socio-economic disciplines. Moscow, Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, November 20-21, 2003. P.9.
the student addresses social problems not only emotionally and descriptively, but also analytically, helping to understand the essence of what is happening, which presupposes active interaction, one of the important resources of which is the student’s own experience, his views on social phenomena and processes.
The use of this resource involves special sociological research into social thinking and social competence of young people.
The relevance of sociological research of this problem is determined by the following circumstances:
The need to study social thinking as a special type of thinking, as an important element in the process of forming a person’s culture, especially his social competence.
The need to find ways to develop social thinking, which involve recognizing the significance of young people’s own views and ideas about society, in order to organize productive interaction in the process of studying social sciences.
The research was supported by the Ford Foundation International Fellows Program.
The methodological basis of the study was the phenomenological traditions in philosophy (E. Husserl, M. Scheler, M.
Heidegger, M. Merleau-Ponty) and sociology (J.G. Mead, A. Schutz), sociology of knowledge (K. Mannheim, P. Berger, T. Luckmann), critical philosophy of I. Kant, “understanding” sociology of M. Weber, philosophy of existentialism (A.
Camus, J-P. Sartre), the theory of cultural systems by K. Geertz, works on the forms of the collective unconscious by K. Jung and the historical school of the Annals.
The approach to the analysis of social consciousness, the concept of worldview, methods of its formation, and knowledge of the surrounding world outlined in these works served as the basis for defining the concepts of “social critical thinking” and “social competence.” The understanding of “freedom” is considered as one of the elements of social competence based on the theories of A. Schopenhauer, E. Fromm, S.A. Levitsky.
The object of the study is the interaction between teacher and student with the aim of developing social thinking in high school students.
Subject of study– features of the development of social thinking of high school students in the process of studying social sciences.
Purpose dissertation work is to identify the main contradictions in the development of social thinking of students and the possibilities of increasing the efficiency of studying social sciences in resolving them.
Achieving this goal involves solving the following research tasks:
1. Define the basic theoretical concepts “social thinking”, thinking”, “social-critical” social competence”, reveal the nature of the relationship between them.
2. Explore the features of social thinking of high school students.
3. Determine the content of social competence of modern high school students, primarily the competence of growing up.
4. Determine the effectiveness of existing models of teaching social sciences in secondary schools from the point of view of the characteristics of interaction between teacher and students.
5. Determine the degree of influence of the study of social sciences on the development of social thinking of high school students.
6. Justify the need to introduce a new model of teaching social studies in order to develop students’ social-critical thinking.
Scientific novelty research:
The author's interpretation of the concepts “social thinking”, “social-critical thinking” is proposed, and a connection is established between them and the concept of “social competence”. Social thinking is considered as a special type of thinking, the individual’s construction and understanding of social reality as the conditions of the environment of his own life, as a view “from the inside.”
The role of school social studies and the effectiveness of various models of its teaching from the point of view of the development of social critical thinking of high school students, which is possible only in conditions of subject-subject interaction between the teacher and students in the process of teaching social sciences, are revealed.
An analysis of the social competence of high school students has been carried out, it has been proven that it is fundamentally contradictory, represented by situationally acquired, disordered knowledge and ways of achieving goals, based on the direct experience of students and their immediate environment.
The possibilities for the development of social-critical thinking in the process of implementing a new model of teaching social studies in secondary schools are identified. Social-critical thinking is a higher level of social thinking, which provides for an understanding of the complexity of the interaction “person – society”, analyzes the hidden meanings of social reality, and most importantly, assumes a willingness to revise one’s ideas about society.
Heuristic possibilities for studying social competence and social thinking “from the inside” are revealed.
The possibilities of a critical model of teaching social sciences are shown, which allows you to use your own ideas and experiences of high school students. It has a pronounced epistemological character and is formed on the basis of the development of criticality.
This approach allows us to overcome the most significant problem in teaching social studies, the apparent clarity of the social structure.
The experience of foreign studies of the social competence of young people in the process of growing up was introduced into scientific circulation, and a comparative analysis of the research results was carried out.
Theoretical significance work consists of:
In defining the concept of “social-critical thinking” as a special type of thinking that is vital for modern man, constituting the basis of his social competence.
In substantiating the features and methods of resolving contradictions in various forms of social interaction with the aim of developing social and social-critical thinking.
The practical significance of the study is that its results can be used in developing the content of educational courses both for secondary school, especially within the framework of the model proposed by the dissertation author, and for higher school as part of the courses “Sociology of age and growing up”, “Sociology of education” , in pedagogical practice.
Testing and implementation of research results. The ideas and results of the study were discussed at regional scientific and practical conferences “Social and humanitarian education in secondary and higher schools: methodological and methodological aspects” (Ekaterinburg, 2001, 2002, 2003), at the first scientific and practical conference of graduate students and applicants USPU “Philosophy and Science” (Ekaterinburg, 2002), at the fourth international conference “Crossroads in cultural studies”
Finland, city), at the conference of grantees (Tampere, 2002 of the program “Interregional research in social sciences” - social sciences and humanities and development problems “Potential of modern Russian society” (St. Petersburg, 2002), at the sixth conference of the European Sociological Association “Ageing Societies, new sociology” (Murcia, Spain, 2003), in publications and reports of the author.
Chapter 1. Methodological problems of studying the development of social thinking of high school students in the process of studying social sciences.
1.1. The essence of social thinking and its main characteristics.
The study of social thinking within the framework of sociological research involves highlighting both the substantive (what thinking operates) and the functional side (how it operates).
To determine the essence of social thinking, it is necessary to highlight the main provisions, which include both the characteristics of mental activity and the characteristics of individual and social consciousness.
1.1.1. Basic characteristics of thinking as a type of human activity.
Since the purpose of this work is to analyze social thinking in relation to student youth, we highlight the most significant characteristics of this activity, based on our research tasks, without in any way claiming to be a complete consideration of mental activity as a whole. The purpose of mental activity is, first of all, “to understand the actual state of things in the world around us.” Accordingly, a person’s thoughts should strive for the most complete, logically harmonious reflection of existing reality. “A thought is a logical picture of a fact. The totality of true thoughts is a picture of the world."
From the point of view of the philosophy of pragmatism, the task of mental activity is not only to construct a picture of the world, but also, first of all, to achieve any practical goals; “...a concept, that is, the rational purpose of a word or other expression, lies exclusively in its conceivable influence on life behavior...”. At the same time, such a practical application may not always be obvious; “the most abstract, at first glance, mental speculations may one day turn out to be surprisingly useful for practice. But, in addition, to deny humanity the right to seek, without any concern for well-being, the satisfaction of intellectual hunger, would mean to absurdly mutilate the human spirit.” The need for mental activity, therefore, is not necessarily connected with the solution of any problems, but is vital for a person, because it allows one to understand specific real events and the forces that determine them, to form “ideals - i.e. goals that will be neither illusions nor purely emotional compensations.”
Defining the goal of thinking as the most complete and adequate reflection of reality gives rise to a contradiction between thought and word.
A thought is expressed in a sentence “in such a way that the elements of the sign of the sentence correspond to the objects of thought.” A thought in this case is a meaningful sentence. The search for such a rigid combination can lead to semantic games and lead far from reality.
The correspondence between thought and word was analyzed in the work of A.S. Vygotsky, where this combination is presented as a dynamic formation, he criticizes the complete correspondence of thought to the word as a purely behaviorist understanding, “thought is speech minus sound,” and also considers incorrect the idea that the word distorts thought. As a result, “the relationship of thought to word is a living process of the birth of thought in the word.” But the word is also the completion of mental activity, that is, the embodiment of thought.
A number of researchers very clearly limit mental activity to logical operations with information; thinking in this case can be represented as a process of solving a problem with certain specified conditions. “Mental logical problems are always something solvable. This means that there is a certain amount of information that can be collected and be sufficient to solve the problem with a finite and consistent number of steps of processing this information” p. The desire to create.
An exclusively rational picture of existence leads to the fact that the person himself, whose real life is often the object of his own mental activity, becomes the main obstacle in this process.
The complexity of the process of mental activity, according to M.
Mamardashvili, consists of a “foreign” element associated with the very existence of a person, his involvement in what is happening, which requires comprehension, which leads to a contradiction between knowledge and the possibility of its implementation in practice, knowledge and evidence of its truth. In his opinion, the path to philosophy as knowledge of reality runs through trials, life experiences and requires a certain alienation of a person from his reality. At the same time, detachment from the world should not lead to the destruction of a person’s internal unity, which is expressed in his activities and interactions, or signify a refusal to consider any aspects of reality, taking them beyond the scope of this “equation.”
The internal integrity of the individual in his experiences, reflections, the unity of the cognitive and emotional gives rise to various disputes about the need for the predominance of one or another aspect in the thought process as the basis for assessing the result. The predominance of the emotional component is declared a problem and leads to a search for social and personal reasons for the deficiency of intellectual development, while at the same time G. Burckhardt, on the contrary, believes that a Western, rationally thinking person is also far from the truth and the most adequate reflection of reality, which is not measured only by logical schemes.
G. Burckhardt characterizes modern Western thinking as linear and hierarchical, the goal of which is systematization. Such an approach excludes the most important thing in a person - his sensuality. “A constructively thinking person is confident that only he has a sense of reality, reality, without noticing... that the reality of what is being produced is very far from the indivisible, unreduced reality.” Thus, individual consciousness, in the process of cognition of the surrounding world, with the help of mental activity as a method of orientation, selects and masters the most significant from the totality of various levels of social consciousness for the organization of its own life. As a result, logical operations can be performed with irrational content.
To study social thinking, a broad view of the process of mental activity is required, which includes both conscious and unconscious use of symbols, images and words. TO.
Geertz defines thinking as “the construction and testing of symbolic systems that are used as models for other systems:
physical, biological, social, psychological, etc. - thus, the structure of these systems is, as we say, understood.” The connection of the states and processes of these symbolic models with similar processes of the external world occurs through reflection, conceptualization, comprehension, and understanding.
Human mental activity, like any other, always depends on social reality and is expressed in the process of human interaction with the outside world. As a result, it cannot be reduced only to the process of processing received information or solving logical problems, since the number of unknowns in such an “equation” may be infinite. And the value of this activity is determined not only by its approach to the true picture of the world, but also by its value for others, that is, social significance.
Social reality as social 1.1.2. "an object"
thinking.
The subject of consideration of social thinking is undoubtedly social reality, but there is also a feedback: our perception of the surrounding society determines our actions and, accordingly, the same society. This interaction is considered most deeply and fully in phenomenological sociology.
A. Schutz defines social reality through the totality of “objects and events within the sociocultural world as the experience of the everyday consciousness of people living their everyday lives among their own kind and connected with them through various relations of interaction.”
Of course, our surrounding world is filled with some material things, buildings that exist independently of the consciousness of an individual, but behind each object we can assume the idea of its creators, embodied in it, the result of someone’s mental activity. Each person with his thoughts, ideas, actions brings something into this world and, to a greater or lesser extent, determines its future. All circumstances of human activity are, to a large extent, the results of individual and collective choices and projects constantly carried out in society. Each person's choice is associated with similar actions of other people. “Since the social system is formed by the interactions of human individuals, each participant is simultaneously both an actor (having certain goals, ideas, attitudes, etc.) and an object of orientation, both for other actors and for himself.”
To exist in this interactive world, a person’s behavior and actions are justified and provoked by his everyday reflection of the world around him. Of course, they are also determined by various social processes and material conditions, but all these motives are refracted in consciousness. Worldview and cultural tradition, religion and psychology are the environment where people’s reactions to the objective stimuli of their behavior arise. People interpret the world in ideal objects that determine their behavior.
A biographically determined situation, the deposition of all previous experience, systematized in the usual forms of the available stock of knowledge, presupposes certain possibilities for future practical or theoretical activity. Moreover, this situation is unique for each person. Overcoming differences is possible thanks to the interchangeability of points of view and the coincidence of the system of relevances.
A significant part of our knowledge about the world is of social origin and is transmitted by friends, parents, teachers, teachers of teachers, not only by specific subjects, but also by relationships and contexts in which a person is included. “I am taught not only to define the environment, but also to build typical constructs according to a system of relevances corresponding to the anonymous unified point of view of the “we-group”
The formation of meaning does not occur in isolation, it is a product of already existing accepted meanings. “However, this set of meanings - and this is the difference between the kingdom of culture and the kingdom of nature - arose and continues to be formed in human actions: our own and other people, contemporaries and predecessors.” As a result, even natural scientific knowledge, also being a product of human activity, is the result of social interaction and is endowed with certain meanings, social in nature.
All thinking is social in essence, but not all thinking is social. The essence of social thinking lies, first of all, in the need for an individual to interpret social reality, to search for meanings that determine not only his life, but also allow him to analyze social institutions such as science, religion, politics. In this case, the interpretation can proceed either in compliance with the basic principles of scientific knowledge or without it. But in any case, the key word is as a basis “understanding”
interpretations.
For historians and sociologists, cultural phenomena are the most difficult to dismember for the purpose of causal analysis.
Sharing the point of view of Max Weber, according to which man is an animal entangled in networks of meanings woven by himself, K. Geertz believes that these networks are culture, therefore its analysis should be carried out by interpretive science, engaged in the search for meanings.
The intersubjectivity of the social world, life among other people, community of concerns and work, brings understanding to the fore as one of the main aspects of social thinking. Entry into the social environment is possible only through the process of assimilation of generally accepted meanings.
Everyday life appears to us as a universe of meaning, a set of meanings that we must interpret in order to find support. “Social phenomena do not just “exist”, they always mean for a person, and it is through the mechanisms of meaning that social and inter-individual interaction occurs.
1.1.3. Understanding as the basis for understanding social reality.
The category “understanding” has always been key in the methodology of social cognition, since data from the sciences of the spirit are taken from internal experience, from a person’s direct observation of himself and other people and the relationships between them. Understanding is a method that characterizes only and exclusively social cognition, because facts from life can be understood “from the inside,” moreover, it is key as a procedure for comprehending or generating meaning.
Understanding cannot be fully expressed in logical interaction, since it includes penetration into the spiritual world of another person, the procedure of comprehension and correlation with one’s own spiritual world, that is, empathy, “feeling” (method of humanitarian knowledge by V. Dilthey). life has its own “Each meaning, the meaning of individual existence, is completely ... unique and cannot be analyzed by any knowledge, and yet it, like Leibniz’s monad, reproduces for us the historical universe in a specific way.”
Understanding is considered as direct comprehension of some mental and spiritual integrity, i.e. as an intuitive penetration of one life into another, as a decoding of the meaning and meaning of socio-historical activity and provides for subject-subject interaction. “Is it possible to become familiar with a faith that you do not share except from hearsay? This is how things are, I repeat, with all phenomena of consciousness when they are alien to us.” You, the Other, as something independent of our imagination, something that is as real to itself as our own existence. V. Dilthey's autobiography is the highest form of expression of one's own life, and allows others to understand the author.
Before positivism lost its comprehensive influence, a number of researchers, including V. Dilthey, considered it fundamentally impossible for the existence of philosophy, history or sociology to generalize the course of the historical process as a whole, since direct experience on which any understanding is based is individual.
Subsequently, “understanding” as a method in its development receives different interpretations and meanings. According to G. Simmel, understanding is accessible only to such combinations of experiences that act not only as random phenomena of subjective mental life, but also have the universally binding nature of the typical. Identification of certain types of person allows us to understand the Other. Understanding in this case has an aspect of typicality; in order to understand, it is necessary to reduce everything to one thing.
You, the Other, as a rule, are carriers of a different culture, mentality, and we inevitably try to approach this different reality with the rules and norms that are familiar to us. Understanding in this case is a consequence of dialogue, during which differences are clarified and some acceptable basis for interaction is achieved. We ask a foreign culture new questions that it has never asked itself; a foreign culture reveals to us new sides of itself, new semantic depths. Without your questions, according to M.M. Bakhtin, it is impossible to creatively understand anything else. Such communication of cultures allows us to achieve unity, mutual enrichment and preserve their integrity.
The scientist who made the category “understanding” central to his sociological concept was Max Weber. In science, the subject of which is the meaning of behavior, “explain” means to comprehend the semantic connection that determines the action accessible to direct understanding. In all these cases, where rationality or affects are decisive, it is necessary to look for the subjective meaning of what is happening. Max Weber believes that by studying social formations, we are able to go beyond the simple establishment of functional connections and rules and provide something that is completely inaccessible to all natural sciences. “We understand the behavior of individuals participating in events, while we cannot understand the behavior of cells, but can only comprehend it functionally, and then establish the rules of this process. The advantage of an interpretive explanation compared to an explanation based on observation is achieved, however, due to the greater hypotheticality and fragmentation of the conclusions obtained.” Accordingly, understanding what is happening in society can be considered as an analysis of the semantic moments of sociocultural life. Any social action is filled with meaning to one degree or another, and therefore can be correlated with the actions of other people. The object of understanding research is the semantic connection of behavior.”
In the interpretation of postpositivism, understanding is combined with explanation as a figurative component with a logical rationalization of already understood (placed in the cognitive model) real relationships, for which it is necessary to find a law that establishes the universal in them. In general, this is due to the recognition of the possibility of different types of rationality, the introduction of understanding into this area.
In phenomenological sociology, understanding is a prerequisite for any social interactions, as well as social structures and institutions that arise on their basis, i.e. the precondition for all possible thought processes and procedures. As a result, the only possible sociology becomes the sociology of knowledge, and the object of social research becomes everyday consciousness. When studying the motives and behavior of people in the process of their social interaction, we inevitably face the fact that we are not studying some objectified reality, but in fact its perception by other people, since these people act as our intermediaries between the research position and social reality.
The dialectic of the general and the particular has led to the fact that in sociology of the last third of the century the so-called 20th “qualitative” methods are actively used, which make it possible to study society not only by highlighting the typical, but also to concentrate the researcher’s attention on an individual. At the same time, turning to the individual for sociology is a possible way to identify new elements for generalization. Everything a person says or writes, everything he makes, everything he touches can and should provide information about him. The desire to see behind social phenomena the consciousness of a person or group, the opportunity to come closer to the true motivating reasons for people’s actions, not limited to the statements they declare, which may well be not only intentional deception, but also self-deception, an illusion, allows us to reveal the socio-cultural justifications of the behavior of individuals and groups.
Thanks to neo-Kantianism, the now traditional interpretation of understanding as a heuristic cognitive procedure that gives an increase in knowledge, and not only restores the original one, was laid down. Understanding, first of all, is a procedure for discovering the meaning of a text in the process of its interpretation, reconstructing its original intent, that is, overcoming cultural and temporal distance. The combination of “understanding” and “explanatory” schemes in scientific knowledge and cognition leads to the universalization of procedures of understanding, which were transferred from historical humanitarian knowledge to social knowledge, and then began to be considered as the basis of knowledge.
In hermeneutics, “understanding” is the main category as the search for meaning as its own subject and the procedure for assigning meanings, while the original ability of a person to understand is proclaimed, but there is a shift from the meanings themselves to linguistic practices
Discourses as a subject of direct analysis. Understanding begins to be interpreted as the ability to act in accordance with the socio-cultural context, i.e. it expresses the attitude of a subject who owns the norms of a given culture to a text produced within the framework of this culture (in an expanded interpretation).
At the same time, the process of understanding is endowed with an active and communicative nature. Setting methods of action and communication is the launch of mechanisms for the formation of understanding. In this interpretation, it is understanding that creates meaning, i.e. the latter are not understood, but are produced in specific activity-communicative situations.
It is not the meaning or the text that is understood, but the situation in which the understanding person finds himself. In this respect, meaning is seen as situationally created and differs from other meanings included in the situation as ready-made meanings. The generated meanings are captured in reflection procedures. Reflection not only clarifies meanings, but also reveals semantic gaps, thereby launching new acts of meaning-producing activity and communication. The achieved level of understanding leaves open dialogic and communicative practices that allow one to go beyond ontological concepts and established interpretive schemes, moving systems into new contexts and provoking the emergence of new contexts, and thereby launching new interpretations.
Misunderstanding in this case can be interpreted as a manifestation of psychological or theoretical closed thinking, committed to following dogmatized, internalized patterns, which is expressed in the inability to comprehend new situations of communication and action. Consequently, the condition for understanding is the activation of thinking processes in communicative, active and reflective practices.
Understanding from this perspective becomes a problem of practical attitude and practical reason.
The substantiation of the inextricable connection between thought and human existence allows M.
Heidegger speaks of understanding as a specific relationship of an individual to reality. Human life is presented as an understanding being. Understanding, therefore, can be considered as a constant interaction, a form of existence of man and society.
In the process of social cognition, according to G. Simmel, society, through the individual’s understanding of the procedure, cognizes itself, using the idea of oneself as a regulatory principle of cognition, thereby forcing the phenomena and facts of unfolding social life to be expressed in the categories and forms prescribed to them . The substantiation of this approach to the study of social thinking, the analysis of the interaction between society and the individual, conditioned by understanding as an important component of human existence, requires a more detailed look at the area of everyday consciousness that determines these processes.
1.1.4. Everyday consciousness.
Everyday, everyday consciousness is very often considered in contrast to the scientific, rational, logically conditioned and can be considered less adequate when perceiving the surrounding reality.
Rather, it should be said that the methods and possibilities for comprehending reality provided by everyday consciousness are much wider and more diverse. Various forms of knowledge: everyday, religious, mythological, artistic and scientific - depending on the purpose, nature of knowledge, as well as the means and methods used, are equally significant for understanding the social world as part of social interaction, social reality, the study of which requires a holistic look, because the main thing is to recreate a three-dimensional picture of life on many levels.
Nevertheless, it should be recognized that in everyday consciousness the rationality of thinking is combined with the irrationality of consciousness as a whole.
We can say this: logical operations (for example, selection operations) are performed with meanings that are often built on an irrational basis, and this is all mixed in the public consciousness. Thanks to the sociology of knowledge, we understand the connection of thinking with the spiritual atmosphere of our era and the significant element of the so-called unconscious in it. Consciousness (of the individual) - at all levels, from philosophical reflection to cultural stereotypes and the collective unconscious - coloring and largely determining his social behavior, is an integral component of the life of social groups.
Individual consciousness, on the one hand, determines and, on the other hand, includes collective forms of perception of the surrounding reality. K. Jung, in addition to the “personal unconscious” as a reflection of individual experience in the psyche, identifies an even deeper layer of the “collective unconscious”, which reflects the experience of previous generations and is the basis for the formation of the core of personality. According to K. Jung, the content of the collective unconscious consists of archetypes, universal human prototypes.
The “Annalists” included the unconscious in the field of their research through the category “mentality.” L. Febvre and M. Blok applied the analysis of mentality to the consciousness of people of other societies, making sure that people think differently in different eras. Mentality allows us to identify intellectual procedures, ways of perceiving the world that were inherent in people of a certain era, and of which they were not clearly aware, applying them as if “automatically.”
Mentality is that level of social consciousness at which thought is not separated from emotions, from latent habits and techniques of consciousness, from what people use, usually without noticing it themselves, without thinking about the reasons and logical validity.
In each society, at a given stage of development, there are specific conditions for the structuring of individual consciousness;
culture and tradition, language, way of life and religiosity form a kind of “matrix” - within its framework the mentality is formed. The era in which an individual lives creates his worldview and gives him certain forms of mental reactions and behavior. The peculiarities of spiritual equipment are found in the collective consciousness of social groups and crowds and even in the individual consciousness of outstanding representatives of the era. In the creativity of the latter, with all their unique, unique features, common features of mentality appear, because culture offers all people belonging to a given society a common mental toolkit, and the extent to which he has mastered it depends on the abilities and capabilities of a particular individual. If we ignore the sudden changes that occur from time to time in the collective consciousness, we will have to admit that mentalities usually change slowly, imperceptibly for their bearers.
The reason is that the mentality itself most often remains logically unidentified and unreflected.
Scientific social theories, which deal with general patterns of development, are often unable to reveal phenomena such as mentality, since the latter is dissolved in the individual consciousness and manifests itself in very different ways in a person’s activities, being mediated by the specifics of his psychological characteristics. Gabriel Tarde, analyzing the processes of the French Revolution in the second half of the 19th century, comes to the conclusion that the foundations of social logic consist of human beliefs and desires, which are transformed into judgments and desires at the level of rationality. When it comes to individual consciousness, the prerogative is given to psychological science, but the processes of cognition of the surrounding world, as social interaction, cannot but fall into the sphere of sociology and other social sciences.
K. Geertz argues that sociology can also explore human behavior that is sometimes inexplicable from the point of view of rationality, using the concepts of symbol and cultural schemes. He views cultural schemas—religious, philosophical, aesthetic, scientific, ideological—as programs that provide the individual with templates or blueprints for organizing social and mental processes. In particular, ideology as a cultural system, by giving the individual such patterns, uses the power of the symbol, which consists in its ability to designate and communicate social realities that are not amenable to the careful language of science, thus conveying a more complex meaning than a literal understanding suggests. K. Geertz compares a symbol with a metaphor, which ensures interaction between heterogeneous meanings and creates a unified scheme.
Understanding human consciousness and activity is impossible without approaching his worldview as an analysis of a cultural system.
The most important characteristic of everyday consciousness - and especially its individual level - as regards, first of all, the individual level, is its a prioriity or naturalness of knowledge about society, which M. Scheler called a “relatively natural worldview.” M. Scheler emphasized that “human knowledge in society is given to individual perception a priori, guaranteeing the individual a semantic order. Although this order is associated with a certain socio-historical situation, it seems to the individual a natural way of seeing the world." According to P. Berger and T. Luckman, all necessary objectifications expressed in language are given to us initially, moreover, they have appropriate legitimation. In the process of his social practice, an individual can revise these initial postulates, but for him they are relatively stable and taken for granted. As a result, the world itself, experienced as real, is not necessarily exactly that; it exists for us in our interpretations. With all the coincidences and discrepancies, there is a constant correspondence between my meanings and the meanings of other people in this world - the knowledge that a person shares with other people in the usual routine of life, the most important thing is that it does not require any additional verification.
A person perceives everyday life depending on spatial and temporal proximity and distance.
Accordingly, the views of people in the immediate environment are more understandable, and getting to know the consciousness of the inhabitants of another country already seems like exploring another planet. Religion and science are also examples of such a different reality, which is reflected in the difference in the language used. Consequently, in order to penetrate into a sphere that is not natural for us, we must make significant efforts not only in mastering a “foreign” language, but also in some way restructuring our mental activity and overcoming our own self-sufficiency.
Traditionally, the framework that limits the possibilities of everyday consciousness includes its stereotypical nature. W. Lippman was the first to introduce the concept of a stereotype as a simplified, schematized image of social objects or events, a kind of “squeeze” from moral norms, social philosophy and political propaganda, which is highly stable. Disputes about “usefulness” or “harmfulness”
stereotypes continue to this day. A. Merenkov considers stereotypes to be the basis of the thinking process. Stereotypes provide the unconscious part of thinking, ensuring a person’s existence in the world, helping a person navigate circumstances that do not require analysis of the situation or choice of solution options. If the circumstances are different, a person can reconsider his program of actions and gradually form a new stereotype. “A qualitative feature of human mental activity is the possibility of developing a stereotype that is different from the one that has arisen on the basis of the reflection of reality, which is an image of an object that can be created through a practical combination of elements already connected by thought. Thus, a thinking stereotype determines the content and direction of the future stereotype of practical transformative activity.” In other words, the limitation may not be the stereotype itself, but its discrepancy with reality, which cannot be eliminated, that is, the process of constructing new activity programs is not carried out.
Thus, the possibilities, content, methods of mental activity of everyday consciousness are connected with the needs of the existence of the human community, the characteristics of human activity. There is a point of view that only with the help of sociological thinking can an individual understand the essence of social phenomena. As a result, the role of social thinking can be reduced only to providing for the practical needs of a person, which is not true. Since social thinking in our work is considered more broadly, we should dwell in more detail on the relationship between social and sociological thinking.
1.1.5. Sociological and social thinking.
"History, law, economics, political science, sociology - they all look at human actions and their consequences". But sociology is distinguished by a more general view, the desire to “consider human actions as elements of broader structures,” and is considered in this case as a theoretical level of understanding social problems as a whole. Theoretical analysis is always a focused look at a certain aspect of reality; it is distinguished by a specific choice of research tools, a systematic approach, logical presentation and evidence of all proposed postulates.
The so-called common sense, which guides every person in his daily life, corresponds to the level of everyday consciousness, and is a field for theoretical research. At the same time, social thinking cannot be considered only as a practical way of finding a solution to any vital problem for an individual, i.e. searching for a way to achieve results. Its ideological aspect is significant, on the basis of which an understanding of social reality occurs through the search for meaning, which allows the individual to perceive various social institutions, such as science, religion, politics, etc.
Z. Bauman identifies a number of characteristic differences between sociology and common sense.
We will use these differences to distinguish social from sociological thinking and will use common sense statements as characteristics in relation to social thinking.
1. Compliance with the rules of responsible statements (a feature of science), distinguishing between statements verified by available experience and “conditional and unverified opinion”, that is, the generally accepted practice of procedures in science is observed.
2. The size of the field for collecting material on the basis of which judgments are made. For most people, such a field is limited to their own life world. And personal experience is always fragmented and one-sided.
Only a comparison of such experiences, which is inherent in sociology, can lead to a general picture of any socio-cultural processes.
A way of making sense of human reality. Common sense 3.
explains everything from his own experience, so the situation always seems to be the result of the action of some subject, that is, it is extremely personalized. The media also “portray complex problems of peoples, states and economic systems as the result of the thoughts and deeds of a few individuals who can be named, put on camera or interviewed.” Sociology examines the meaning of human existence “through the analysis of man’s diverse interdependencies.”
Common sense is based on “routine, monotonous nature 4.
everyday life, which “informs” our common sense and, in turn, is “informed” by it. Recognizability and familiarity are more inherent in common sense, curiosity and criticality - in sociology.
Agreeing with Z. Bauman on the main points, we note that the comparison of experience, one’s own and that of others, is also inherent in common sense; sociological thinking in this case compares these facts, explores the features of human life within the framework of the model of society as a whole.
Based on these differences, it can be assumed that social and sociological thinking are “genetically interrelated,” but in this dissertation, social thinking is not reduced to “imperfect” sociological thinking. The similarity between these two types of thinking is essentially limited to their subject matter. It should be noted that this position is also not quite correct; rather, social thinking is the subject of sociological research, but social reality is certainly present in both types of thinking.
Sociological thinking is the scientific construction of a model of society as a whole, an “outside” view, a researcher’s tool. Each direction of such special research is the specification, detailing of some aspect of social reality within the framework of this model. And social thinking is a view “from the inside” and knowledge about society here is very closely intertwined with other information relating to all aspects of life, and with their assessment based on the effectiveness of achieving set goals, which very often determines the worldview as a whole.
Social thinking combines practical and theoretical knowledge, the intellectual matrix laid down by the mentality, for the individual in his practical activities - a tool, the basis of his thinking, which at the same time does not deprive him of the opportunity to be critical of this basis.
For a sociologist, such a matrix is, on the one hand, an obstacle to research, since he himself belongs to a certain era, on the other hand, it is a necessary aspect of the study of the individual’s consciousness.
Social thinking more often operates with meanings that are produced in the sphere of personal interactions of a person. The acceptance of social meanings occurs in the form of the formation of ideas, which are considered as “the unity of cognitive and emotional, knowledge and attitude, rational and moral-personal.”
The diversity of individual experience, as well as intellectual abilities, expand the “field of representation” (Moscovici S.). At the same time, the meanings or ideas in the sphere of personal interaction are most understood and realized, and the meanings of phenomena and processes occurring in society that are more distant from the individual are, as a rule, taken on faith.
Perhaps that is why, to this day, such types of consciousness as religious, mythological consciousness, which positivism hoped to “bury”
back in the 19th century, they still exist. Social thinking constructs a symbolic system from what is the content of social consciousness, proposed by society, the state, and various social institutions. At the same time, the ability to see behind everyday events the principles of interaction between a person and society as a whole is also accessible to social thinking, since it also operates with knowledge of a more general nature. The peculiarity of such knowledge is imagery and emotionality.
Society is considered by the individual, first of all, as an environment, the conditions of his own life, and depending on the success or failure of the implementation of his plans and hopes, it acquires different emotional connotations, positive or negative.
At the same time, drawing a direct analogy between scientific and non-scientific thinking leads to the fact that the dominance of the emotional, value-semantic, moral and personal components is considered as a disadvantage, for example, of the social thinking of Russians, since this leads to the derogation of the cognitive, intellectual component. On the one hand, the mental activity of Russians in a totalitarian society really developed in accordance with a strictly directed socio-political environment, which was not conducive to constructive thinking. On the other hand, in the same work Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A.
formulates the position that through social thinking a person brings certainty to what is contradictory, multifaceted, while using any “intellectual-spiritual”
forms and methods: in some cases rational, conceptual, in others irrational, intuitive, both collective and individual.
We can conclude that such an ability of social thinking is not a disadvantage, but rather an advantage, because it allows one to perceive the diversity of forms of awareness of life activity, and helps the individual build his life and release his hopes and aspirations in a wide variety of social environments.
K. Geertz, making a distinction between science and ideology as different cultural systems, uses the following argumentation. In science, the structure of situations is named in such a way that this name contains an attitude of disinterest. Her style is restrained, dry, decisively analytical, avoiding semantic devices that best express moral feelings, she strives to achieve maximum intellectual clarity. And ideology names the structure of the situation in such a way that the naming contains a relationship of involvement. Her style is ornamental, lively, deliberately affecting the senses; she objectifies the moral sense with the help of the very techniques that science avoids, because its task is to induce action. Of course, being interested, due to the need to ensure his own life activity, with the help of social thinking the individual, as it were, creates his own model of society, the center of which is himself, as a cultural system, saturated with various meanings, partly known, partly accepted on faith. This system itself can be considered imperfect from the point of view of science, but it is not initially built as a scientific one.
Social thinking often operates with symbols; the creators of ideological systems actively use this feature in order to influence people who allow them to comprehend and transmit their knowledge to others, conveying more complex meanings than a literal understanding suggests. As a result, the use of symbols, on the one hand, allows you to most expressively and fully convey your attitude so that you are understood, on the other hand, it can lead to misconception and uncritical perception. For social thinking, symbolization is one of the ways to generalize information about the surrounding reality.
Thus, in this work, social thinking is the individual’s construction and understanding of social reality as conditions, the environment of his own life, which presupposes:
The view, first of all, is “from the inside,” since the assessment of all social phenomena and processes occurs in relation to one’s own life;
The bright emotional coloring of such an assessment;
More conscious comprehension and generation of meaning in the sphere of personal interaction, and taking it on faith when it comes to something that is not directly included in this sphere.
In modern society, one of the main characteristics of which is diversity, the problem of social thinking is associated with the lack of sustainability of social practices, the need for the individual to constantly make vital choices, which requires an analysis of the current situation. Thus, the task arises of developing a person’s abilities, within the framework of everyday consciousness, to change the views and ideas that he has developed in the process of practice.
1.1.6. Features of the modern world that lead to the need to change everyday consciousness.
In my dissertation, I highlight those features of modern society that are of greatest importance for changing human mental activity.
Development of the information society. Information is becoming a key aspect of the development of a new stage of society, where intelligent technologies are becoming the decisive means of control. With an increase in the volume of information circulating in society, the main problem for every person becomes mastering ways of working with this data, which increasingly covers all aspects of human life, both production and consumption. Improving the means of information transmission leads to the rapprochement of territories, states, people belonging to different cultures, and contributes to the process of leveling out their inherent characteristics, which carries both positive and negative aspects.
Global processes in modern society. M. Castells talks about the construction of new forms of space and time of human life associated with the emergence and development of a metanetwork, which leads to the devaluation of entire territories. In this process, the structural significance of people, localities and individual activities disappears, it moves into the logic of a metanetwork, where values are formed, cultural codes are created and decisions related to power are made. W. Beck, analyzing the development processes of modern society, writes about the globalization of private life. life is no longer tied to any “private specific place... it is life on the move... transnational life...
technology serves as a means of overcoming time and space.”
In order to live “community”, it is no longer necessary to live in one place.
The enormous opportunities opening up for humanity with the creation of global information networks can result in negative consequences, one of which – resource depletion – is already becoming urgently relevant. If we consider the consequences of the computerization of the world: on the one hand, these are new opportunities for economic development and information exchange, on the other hand, massive layoffs of people in production and increased control over people using the same electronic means. The result may be the “roboticization” of humans.
Modern society as a society of “risk”. The global problems of our time, from a possible thermonuclear catastrophe and the severe economic backwardness of a number of regions of the world to human degradation, associated primarily with the problems of alcoholism and drug addiction, were most actively covered and analyzed in the second half of the 20th century, in particular, in the activities of the Club of Rome. It is important for us to emphasize here that all these processes of a global nature make our modern society a risk society.
The risk society requires the creation of new social structures, which Beck calls a “self-critical society,” which is at least verbally ready to counteract and restructure its thinking and does not agree with the assurances of technicians that in the case of the use of nuclear energy and genetic engineering there is zero risk. W. Beck sees the way out in democracy”, in the transnational significance of “cosmopolitan fundamental rights, which I. also spoke about.
Kant in his work "Towards Eternal Peace":
Democracies cannot exist within individual states, but only in a society of world citizens. The most important positive aspect of this process is the opportunity in this network society to reach a level of knowledge and social organization that allows one to live in a social world. M. Castells believes that the life of humanity will change radically, we are talking about the beginning of a different existence, the arrival of a new information society, marked by the independence of culture in relation to the material basis of our existence.
It is modern society that creates such conditions for the life of an individual when he begins to analyze his own mental activity. K. Manheim believes that in a stable and stable society a person does not seem to think, in the sense that he uses concepts and forms of thinking created by society, the environment in which he exists. Modern society, which is characterized by high horizontal and vertical mobility, places the individual in such conditions that he gets the opportunity to observe the mental activity of people belonging to other cultural communities with a different mentality. Such a contradiction can lead to a critical look at one’s own thinking, asking the question, why do I think this way? At the same time, a completely opposite trend can be identified in the development of social consciousness.
The end of the social in the sociology of postmodernism.
Changes in society lead to what postmodern theorists call the “end of the social,” meaning the blurring of the boundaries of social groups. The concept of “society” reflects the process of constant movement of individuals from one group to another, because of which all social processes acquire a new character. “Even the Mohicans of social history, who had not abandoned its impoverished field, suddenly felt how its basic concepts “swimmed away.” A researcher who approaches sources with an unbiased mind states the disappearance of classes, social strata, macrogroups, etc.”
One may disagree with the “postmodernists,” for example, about the disappearance of such processes as education and upbringing from our lives, but one cannot help but admit that their character is really changing, and quite dramatically. J. Baudrillard believes that the downside of this process is not the creation of new social formations or an increase in the mental activity of the individual, but rather the desire to avoid this, as a result the person merges with the mass, the crowd.
“The entire chaotic accumulation of the social revolves... around the masses,” as a result “they absorb and neutralize all the electricity of the social and political irrevocably.” J. Baudrillard refuses the masses to master any meaning at all. “They are neither good conductors of the political, nor good conductors of the social, nor good conductors of meaning in general.” The masses are capable of acting as the protagonists of history, but this force is elemental in its essence. The social, according to J. Baudrillard, is a “loose, viscous, lumpenanalytic idea” in contrast to the sociological. Such a view of the social contradicts the main idea of our dissertation work, but one cannot but agree with some of the conclusions of the presented author. The masses are extremely irrational, the main thing for them is not meaning, but spectacle, in modern society they retreat into private life, J. Baudrillard calls this “a form of active resistance to political manipulation.”
Thus, we can identify extremely contradictory trends in changes in everyday consciousness and the mental activity of individuals in modern society. On the one hand, conditions are created for a critical attitude towards one’s own thinking, opportunities for its improvement, on the other hand, one can actually observe the process of withdrawal into private life, refusal to comprehend deep social meanings. At the last conference of the European Sociological Association, a dismissive expression was heard when it came to modern youth that they were “the generation of credit cards and cell phones,” implying that they were only interested in the process of consumption.
One gets the feeling that a person is floating along a river, the flow of which is becoming faster and faster, and he still has not learned to control his vehicle. Humanity successfully solves numerous scientific and technical problems, but “suffers” from anomie; the phenomenon of “relative poverty” comes to replace the phenomena of absolute poverty and hunger, which provoke antisocial behavior.
In modern society, the individual’s readiness to change his ideas as stable formations becomes an urgent necessity. The decisions we make constantly as individuals and as members of society about the economy, the conservation of natural resources, or the development of nuclear weapons not only determine the life of humanity, but also raise the question of its survival. Understanding that any activity is connected with similar actions of other people, that humanity, figuratively speaking, “sits in the same boat” and needs to coordinate interests, assess the consequences of one’s decisions for others, and not just choose an option that is beneficial for oneself, makes us to talk about the need for modern man to think socially critically.
1.1.7. Social-critical thinking as a way of orientation in modern reality.
The situation of choice, characteristic of modern society, significantly increases the degree of human responsibility for what is happening.
Modern reality requires strengthening the individual’s mental activity in his own life, and the formation of his social competence as the basis for making informed decisions that determine both his own fate and the future fate of humanity. Critical thinking is necessary for an individual's decisions to be made in a positive manner.
The need to be fully aware of one’s existence, which “requires maximum intensity and extensiveness of consciousness, a minimum of the unconscious,” defines the face of a modern person, and not one who lives only in accordance with tradition. At the same time, according to K. Jung, there are very few such people, since a person tries to continue to live, first of all, as is customary, as proposed, relying on situational decisions. In other words, a person prefers to simply live rather than think about it.
If we look at this “sociologically”, based on the relationship between man and society, we can conclude that no one has yet required, and is unlikely to require in the future, an awareness of his position in this society and the situation in society as a whole. .
Sociological thinking or imagination, as a professional, scientific one, following our logic, cannot help when we are talking about individuals as a whole. At the same time, we can observe the refusal of individuals to attempt to comprehend social reality, especially based on the principles of scientific knowledge.
What is needed is an approach to the development of social thinking that will allow the individual, while remaining within the framework of his model of society, to “look” at what is happening more deeply, more critically. The term “critical thinking” is one of the most popular, including in pedagogical and psychological literature. According to D. Halpern, critical thinking is “the use of cognitive skills or strategies that increase the likelihood of obtaining the desired result. It is distinguished by its balance, logic and purposefulness.” This definition emphasizes the practical aspect, that is, such thinking contributes to the achievement of the goal. D.
Kluster defines the characteristics of critical thinking as follows:
This is independent thinking;
Information is the starting point, and not the end point, of the thinking process;
It starts with asking questions and understanding the problems that need to be solved;
Strives for enhanced argumentation;
This is social thinking.
This definition is more consistent with the goals of our work, since the process of mental activity itself is emphasized.
Social knowledge, according to P. Burt, has its own “emancipatory potential”, since it can free a person from imposed cultural restrictions with the help of “archeology and genealogy of knowledge” (M. Foucault).
Analysis of one’s own ideas, comparing them with the views of others, including theoretical concepts, allows one to understand both their origin, their conditioning by the social environment, and their limitations due to the complexity of understanding social processes. Criticality in this case is considered, based on the views of I. Kant, first of all, as a recognition of the limitations and imperfections of an individual’s own views on society.
It should be noted that a person by himself is not able to master these skills; this requires a certain educational environment, and this is seen as the direction of bringing together the social and sociological sciences with pedagogical science and practice.
The peculiarities of the modern world lead to the destruction of the basis of everyday consciousness, its consistency and stability. Social critical thinking allows an individual to understand and accept these contradictions and achieve a certain stability in the perception of this world.
At the same time, interpreting the actions of another person, forming ideas about the way of thinking of another person in conditions of both joint actions and in conditions of conflict requires special efforts from a modern person in the field of understanding based on the search for meaning.
Social-critical thinking as the construction of social reality provides for an understanding of the complexity of the “person-society” interaction, the existence of hidden meanings of social reality, and most importantly, the individual’s readiness to revise his ideas about society. The characteristics of such thinking, in our opinion, are inevitably: accepting the position of the Other, perceiving the conflict as an opportunity for development. The development of such thinking will contribute to the achievement of social competence necessary for an individual in modern society.
1.1.8. Social thinking as the basis for the development of social competence.
The experience of people's interaction in the arena of social activity is reflected in their social competence. Social competence as an aspect of individual consciousness is responsible for building social relationships at all levels by the person himself, from family to political.
The very concept of social competence is very difficult to limit, since everything that a person knows can be attributed to this area. Sociocultural competence is “the ability to perceive others with positive emotions as a path to learning new things, enriching one’s own experience and contributing to personal development.”
The competence paradigm has been actively developing in recent years in the sociology of childhood, since it allows us to consider children not only in the movement from a non-adult to an adult state, but as “full-fledged social agents.”
The concept of “competence” in this work “social is understood as a set of ways to realize one’s goals in society, partially tested in one’s own experience, and its “worldview”
justification, that is, ideas about society. Social competence can be divided into two parts: what is comprehended by a person, accepted by him as a result of understanding, reflection, correlation, and what is mastered primarily on the basis of ready-made stereotypes and accepted as a guide to action.
In relation to the object of our research (high school students) in this work, social competence appears as the competence of growing up. The age under study exists in the situation of the end of a life ordered by the school rhythm and the construction of a fundamentally new order. It is during this period that the “Napoleonic plans” characteristic of childhood and youth in general come close to the beginning of implementation and are forced to “ground themselves,” creating a situation of life-determining choice: not only professional, but also socio-political, moral, etc. Choice presupposes reflection and understanding of the situation. Thus, the social competence of growing up is the ability of young people to analyze what is happening around them, adequately assess their capabilities and build strategies for interacting with the outside world.
In the conditions of a transforming Russian society, a significant part of the sphere of social competence of a modern young person is his understanding of “freedom”.
If we distinguish three levels of freedom:
freedom of action, choice and will, then each of them corresponds to a certain degree of actualization. Freedom of action as the ability for a person to realize the movements of his body in accordance with his own preferences, freedom of choice as the validity of these desires, and free will as the original root cause of all human activity. It can be assumed that at the level of everyday consciousness, freedom of action and choice are actualized, first of all, and the main contradiction here is why this freedom as a right can be realized in some areas and not in others, of which there are much more. The philosophical literature notes the difference between the existing possibilities for achieving freedom in society and the direct implementation of such in the process of an individual’s life.
In our study, we tried to determine the significance of different levels of freedom for our young people. From a philosophical point of view, free will cannot be measured; the underlying reasons for people’s actions and desires cannot be known empirically. In our study, we tried to measure the actualization of various degrees of freedom for young people in the process of growing up; we defined a deeper level of freedom as the opportunity for high school students to have their own opinion, their own view of the world. Young people appeal to the category of freedom through an appeal to various social institutions, in our particular case, most often through the images of Others: teachers and parents.
Thus, social-critical thinking is an activity whose goal is to understand social reality with a possible practical outcome, such as making informed decisions about important life issues. The characteristics of such thinking are inevitably: the ability to analyze information through the interpretation of meanings as their understanding, accepting the position of the Other, perceiving the conflict as an opportunity for development, etc. Modern reality requires strengthening the individual’s mental activity in his own life, and the formation of his social competence as the basis for making informed decisions that determine the future fate of humanity.
1.2. Features of the development of social thinking in the process of interaction between teacher and students in the study of social sciences.
The paragraph examines the influence of social science education on the development of social-critical thinking of young people. In this case, it is the influence of education that is important for us, but we immediately note that this is only one of the directions of influence of the environment as a whole. The work uses both a sociological approach to this problem from the point of view of organizing purposeful interaction between teacher and students in the lesson and assessing the nature of this interaction, and a pedagogical approach as an analysis of teaching methods in order to determine the effectiveness of the development of social-critical thinking.
Here we are based, first of all, on the ideas of D. Dewey about the contradiction between formal and informal education, on the contradiction highlighted by E.V. Ilyenkov between the formal focus of the school on the development of logical thinking and the lack of implementation of such a goal in education.
Also used are materials from the concepts of social science and civic education in secondary schools, developed in the social science laboratory of the Institute of General Secondary Education of the Russian Academy of Education and the works of innovative teachers dealing with these problems.
The qualities necessary for orientation in the surrounding space and social reality cannot arise immediately, since they represent a combination of special thinking properties with practical skills.
Social competence, social-critical thinking is the result of the process of interaction of a growing person with the entire environment, the subjects of which are parents, friends, school, and the media. Therefore, before proceeding to a more detailed consideration of teaching in the school of social sciences, we will give a brief description of the influence of all the main actors.
1.2.1. Subjects of the educational environment.
1. Parents or people who have taken over their functions. If on issues related to the immediate life of a teenager, the influence of parents is extremely limited, then regarding the analysis of the social and political sphere, students very often reproduce either the point of view of their parents, or their categorical approach and harshness of assessments, or, conversely, a high degree of tolerance. In particular, children who experience strict parental control may view freedom as permissiveness. At the same time, in families where “independence is encouraged, generally accepted rules are followed and mutual understanding and respect for each other are encouraged, children quickly learn the principles of trust and self-control.” N. Smelser believes that “political knowledge acquired at school does not have a significant impact on political beliefs, the only exception being students from disadvantaged families.” For example, N. Smelser cites a study of college students where students “tend to agree with their fathers on controversial issues such as sexual norms, environmentalism, the causes of campus riots, attitudes toward war, and segregation.”
2. Mass media. The information field is becoming larger and more complex, and the influence on each of us is not only increasing, but also becoming more and more contradictory. “There is no consensus on the extent to which violent displays cause aggressive behavior in children, for example. But there is no doubt that the media have a profound impact on people’s attitudes and worldview.”
In our case, the “consumer set” of each student is important in terms of both content and means available to the teenager. It can be assumed that the wider the range of possibilities, the more likely it is to receive a variety of information and the higher the degree of development of selectivity of consciousness.
3. Peers, school friends, yard company. Peer groups also influence the formation of sociopolitical perceptions. In a study of high schools, M. Levin found that “when the number of students from Republican families increased, students from Democratic families showed a willingness to become adherents of the Republican Party.” J. Piaget believes that the power of peer influence lies in the opportunity for a teenager to act on an equal footing and change the rules of the game. With power, parents can (to varying degrees) impose norms of behavior on their children. On the contrary, in peer groups the child encounters other conditions of interaction in which the rules can be changed and tested, i.e. relations between peers, despite the possible desire of some of them to dominate, are most often more democratic. . The importance of peer influence is much higher than that of parents, but if we are talking about ideas about society, comprehension of meanings remote from direct practice, then parents can play a more important role than peers due to their life experience and the absence of “controversial” issues during discussion.
4. Teachers of history, social studies, literature and other humanities. Their role has changed a lot recently.
The teacher no longer simply presents the material, placing unambiguous accents, positive and negative. Given the large amount of journalistic and scientific material available to students, the teacher can often play different roles depending on the tasks of a certain stage of the educational process. He can act as a simple participant in the discussion, or as a consultant, moderator; the teacher’s point of view is only one of many for the student, and he himself can remain unconvinced. In any case, the teacher, especially now, is only one source of information, and the possibilities of his influence on the development of social-critical thinking and social competence of students depend on his professionalism and the methods he uses in the teaching process. At the same time, the teacher may be one of the few who will be able to discuss with the student the problems of social reality not only at the level of describing facts, accompanied by a strong emotional coloring, but also analytically, helping to understand the essence of what is happening.
1.2.2. A conceptual approach to teaching social studies.
The teaching principles are set out in the concept of social science education in educational secondary schools, developed in the social studies laboratory of the Institute of General Secondary Education of the Russian Academy of Education, and the concept of civic education.
In a modern school, the teaching of social and humanitarian disciplines is represented by a number of subjects: on the one hand - the traditional history of the fatherland, on the other - “Man and Society”, “Modern World”, “Culturology”, “Sociology”, “Politics and Law”, etc. d. At the same time, indirectly, all school subjects can act as an incentive to understand social problems, very often this happens in the process of analyzing the possible consequences of scientific and technological progress: in the physics of the use of nuclear weapons, the use of nuclear energy, in biology
Environmental pollution and extinction of various species of animals as a result of human activities, etc. The social aspect in the study of these disciplines is enhanced by the discussion of global problems of humanity. However, first of all, the study of social science is considered in the concept of social science education as “a necessary condition for the optimal socialization of the individual, facilitating entry into the world of human culture and social values and at the same time the discovery and affirmation of a unique and inimitable self.”
The concept of social science education speaks of the growing importance of social and humanitarian knowledge in modern conditions in connection with trends in the development of mankind and the characteristics of the transitional state of Russian society. Children's poor awareness, given the uncertainty of their formal status, is complemented by anxiety and uncertainty about the future and a low level of responsibility for their actions. Unmotivated cruelty, social infantilism, and consumer attitudes of adolescents, which are, in particular, a consequence of the loss of educational leverage by schools, create a rather alarming situation. As a result, “the main goal of education becomes the formation of a holistic worldview, which presupposes a new way of thinking and acting of a person who knows, understands society and knows how to live in the modern world with its diversity of cultures and ways of life, overcoming his own egoism and realizing the consequences of his activities.”
The significant complication of the structure of Russian society, a multi-structured economy, political diversity, and freedom of the media create the need to create an indicative framework that allows “to organize and comprehend partial fragmentary impressions from the standpoint of scientific knowledge.” Particular importance in this process is given to sociology, which allows one to derive patterns and trends in the course of social processes, i.e. represents "the framework of social thinking as a systemic understanding of the objective and subjective elements of social trends. Holistic systemic sociological thinking will help young people take an active social position in society" p. Thus the concept.
Social science education in secondary school poses extremely difficult tasks for the school, including one of them - the development of sociological thinking.
Based on the tasks set in the concept, in order to understand the processes occurring in society, various sciences are recognized as necessary, which the school curriculum is simply not able to accommodate. In this regard, social studies in school should be integrative in nature and include: philosophical anthropology, which examines the problems of human nature and existence; psychology, showing the complexity of interpersonal relationships; economy, since Russia and economic freedom are a combination that has not yet been mastered; as well as politics, law, ecology and cultural studies. The synthesis of this knowledge will help a person, according to the authors of the concept, to independently determine himself in the system of social relations and will make his self-realization the most successful.
The concept of civic education, the main goal of which is “a purposeful process of influencing students, designed to actively contribute to the formation of a culture of citizenship,” is more applied in nature.
In addition to the traditional component of social science knowledge, emphasis is placed on the following:
1. Study of legal documents, the Constitution of the Russian Federation and other basic legal documents.
2. Using the teacher’s entire arsenal of methodological tools, primarily those involving student activity, seminars, workshops, conferences, and role-playing games.
3. Modeling and analysis of life situations, special attention is paid to the need to synthesize the knowledge and experience of students.
The practical orientation of social science education is expressed in the focus on “the formation of key social competencies in the intellectual, communication, information, socio-political and other spheres.”
From the general complex of designated competencies, those whose formation is included in the goals of teaching, namely social studies, are highlighted:
1. in the field of civil-social, social activities and interpersonal relations, since the course “contains essential elements of culture, without which it is impossible to consciously fulfill typical social roles, and contributes to the development of moral and lawful behavior”;
2. in living conditions in a multicultural and multi-religious society, since the course can promote “the education of tolerance as a moral value, a social norm (emphasized by the author of the dissertation), the civil society emerging in Russia, understanding and respect for a different way of thinking and way of life.”
We specifically quote concepts in such detail to show the “global” nature of the goals facing social science. As an undoubted “advantage” of the proposed concept of civic education, it should be noted that the authors of the concept consider it necessary to democratize the life of the school, as a practical part of the formation of these competencies. The need to incorporate students' life experiences into the learning process of social studies is undoubtedly a very valuable aspect for teaching in secondary schools. At the same time, the disadvantages of the proposed concept are the following points. Firstly, let us immediately note that the listed competencies, whether we like it or not, are formed or formed not only, and not so much within the framework of social science as a subject. Secondly, the emphasis remains on the assimilation of knowledge, and not on the development of social thinking. Thirdly, the synthesis of students’ experience and knowledge, according to the authors, presupposes “the purposeful organization of students’ personal experience on the basis of scientific knowledge,” and it is not clear what is meant in this case, whether we are talking about the development of students’ thinking, which will allow them to systematize their own experience (the word “is used”) comprehension"), or the latter will be assessed on the basis of learned norms (tolerance is understood as a value, a social norm).
In any case, such goals require appropriate methodological support. In the process of implementing the above concepts, deep internal contradictions arise between the goals and methods of their implementation. Academic subjects are divided into three types depending on their leading component: in chemistry, physics, history, the main emphasis is on subject scientific knowledge, when studying a foreign language on methods of activity. An imaginative vision of the world develops during visual arts and music classes. Kinkulkin A.T. believes that social science is characterized by a combination of all three components. And one cannot but agree with this, for example, a social studies course in foreign practice “is viewed as functional, directly aimed at improving society, as a laboratory for the formation of social behavior.” Therefore, in American schools, the course involves tasks that require active activity, “drawing various kinds of diagrams, mainly of a comparative nature; writing essays of a historical nature or articles for a class newspaper covering the historical events studied. This can also be dramatization (re-enactments), meetings with people , contemporaries of certain events, modeling of social events."
Based on the difficulty of the above tasks, according to A.T. Kinkulkin, a fairly large system of requirements is imposed on a textbook in this discipline.
If we sum up all 11 points, which should form the basis of the textbook and are beyond any doubt, we will get the “three pillars” on which modern teaching of social studies stands:
abstractness, systematicity and accessibility.
Firstly, social studies, unlike history and other social and humanitarian disciplines, is a course in which priority belongs to concepts, ideas, and generalizations. The approach to studying material in high school is “from the general to the specific.”
Secondly, the course should include a minimum of information from the basic sciences about society: philosophical anthropology, social philosophy, ethics, economic theory, sociology, political science, etc. All the necessary “links” of the system must be represented, in particular: the unity of man and society, the combination of personal and social. The idea of society as a system requires the inclusion of interdisciplinary and intradisciplinary interactions in the learning process. It is also important to apply a cultural approach to the study of relationships between people, which contributes to the formation of a value-worldview component. During the learning process, those issues that are at the stage of scientific discussion should also be considered, so that students can imagine how the development of social sciences occurs.
Thirdly, the textbook should be aimed at a certain circle of readers-students, take into account their training, life experience, focus on their zone of proximal development, which requires an economical, scientific and pedagogical approach to identifying basic concepts and methods for revealing their characteristics.
In reality, such a conceptual approach is implemented in two main models of teaching social studies that exist in Russian secondary schools. Let's consider these models depending on their ability to develop students' social-critical thinking.
1.2.3. A critical analysis of existing models of teaching social studies in senior secondary schools.
1. A theoretical model, which, first of all, seeks to introduce students to the problems of social sciences, to provide a scientific basis for young people’s ideas about society, through the development
– – –
future methods of activity of the conceptual apparatus of social science knowledge, principles of systematization of social processes. This model includes the subject “Man and Society”, as well as propaedeutic courses in various social sciences: economics, philosophy, sociology, etc. In a more concise form, the theoretical model can be presented as follows (see.
Rice. 1. Theoretical model of teaching social sciences.
The central place in this model is occupied by theoretical knowledge.
Analysis of the provisions of social science knowledge, comparing them with reality known to high school students, should contribute to the development of social thinking, as well as influence the process of forming the student’s norms and values. Critical thinking with this approach is formed “by considering different points of view on the social problems studied in the course.” It is expected that the results of this training will influence the future activities of a citizen in modern society. In fact, everything is not so simple; when using this model, a number of contradictions arise that prevent the achievement of results.
The first contradiction is related to the need to include a huge amount of theoretical material in the course in order to create a holistic systemic picture of society, i.e. mastering the “minimum-maximum”
a volume of knowledge that is minimal from the point of view of a particular science and maximum from the point of view of the general population. At the same time, learning methods and methods of cognitive activity are being mastered, and students’ independent activity is developing.
The classic scheme works: students are offered a certain set of information, a number of concepts: all this is practiced in practical classes, for example, in the process of discussing a problem. The danger is that the required volume of initial theoretical material and its presentation takes up the entire lesson, and independent work of students is difficult due, in particular, to the complexity of the language characteristics of the textbook.
In this case, students are offered ready-made diagrams, which either create a certain framework for the perception of reality, or are discarded by the students as unnecessary. Students who have a stable interest in this subject may go beyond this set, master additional information or analyze more carefully what is offered, but, as a rule, they do this in a given area, without mixing real life with research in the subject area.
The second contradiction may arise between the level of abstractness of concepts and the life ideas of the students themselves. In this contradiction we highlight two aspects. There is a certain set of concepts and patterns as the main basis for the formation of thinking. Firstly, mastering the concepts themselves is already a thinking process; they should truly be the quintessence, the personification of the most essential. “A concept - in contrast to a term that requires simple memorization - is synonymous with understanding the essence of facts. A concept in this sense is always concrete, in the sense, objective. It grows out of facts, and only in facts and through facts has meaning, “meaning”, and content." Otherwise, says E.V. Ilyenkov, abstractness turns into the worst of its variants - labeling. So “to think abstractly is not to see in a murderer anything beyond the abstract fact that he is a murderer, and through this simple quality to extinguish all other qualities of a human being in a criminal.” And if a person tries to consider the reasons why a person became a murderer, how it happened, what is society’s fault in this, then this is specific thinking that deals with facts. The knowledge that politics is, first of all, relations regarding power is not difficult to remember, but the fact that relations of power cover the entire society and the school class as well. Understanding that the actions of politicians are sometimes no different from the actions of classmates in relation to each other is already substantive reasoning, that is, saturating concepts with real, concrete content.
Reasonings of the philosopher E.V. Ilyenkov about the content of concepts and the development of mathematical thinking are also relevant for social science.
The child is introduced into the world of science, according to Ilyenkov, “backwards”; the ideas that he is forced to assimilate do not help, but rather prevent the student from seeing the world from a different angle. This happens if concepts are used that are far from the experience and capabilities of the student, and if the teacher is so persistent that he forces them to assimilate these schemes, then abstract thinking will be formed, which is guided by general words, memorized terms and phrases, and always brings the situation to its own, but does not analyze it, and in the end sees not reality itself, but only the signs denoting it.
Secondly, a contradiction may arise between what the student knows and what is written in the textbook and said by the teacher. Concepts in the social sciences are the quintessence that expresses the key positions of social reality, which is already presented in existing meanings for each of the students. The human actions and interactions studied by sociologists, according to Z. Bauman, have already been named and thought through, albeit not clearly and accurately, by the actors themselves. Such a discrepancy can be discovered in the process of interaction, and this requires the intersection of the views of the teacher and the student.
Interaction in such an educational situation is carried out most often within the framework of “question-answer” due to the fact that the student’s activity within the given framework of scientific knowledge is sharply reduced. He must first understand and figure it out in order to be active, but the overloaded class schedule and the large informative richness of the subject do not leave time for comprehension and clarification in the process of interaction in the lesson. Awareness of the likelihood of a contradiction in the views of students and the presentation of material by the teacher is also noted in the concept of civic education.
Next we will look at another aspect: the student’s reluctance to understand new meanings, when he prefers to stay with those that already exist and do not require additional effort. E.V. Ilyenkov distinguishes two types of knowledge: “knowledge closely related to the active sensory-objective activity of a person” and “knowledge acquired by the brain without any connection with its main activity... in reserve.” When confronted with real experience, knowledge is not necessarily activated; it can simply be forgotten. “The child’s natural brain does its best to resist such ingestion of undigested knowledge. He tries to get rid of food that he himself has not chewed, tries to immerse it in the lower parts of the cortex - to forget.”
We have already noted that the concept of civic education involves addressing the life experience of students, which is done by many teachers in their teaching activities, but this does not always lead to a connection between knowledge and everyday practice. Only the desire of the students themselves ensures the process of rethinking their views and ideas. Appeal to practical experience is also used to create positive motivation for learning.
The third contradiction arises when accessibility turns into simplification. The simplification procedure, which in this case is necessary according to the rule of the “third pillar” of the concept - accessibility, is very dangerous; it should not concern the essence of the phenomenon under discussion.
Accessibility should only be achieved through the way the material is presented.
With the amount of educational material determined by the program and students who do not very clearly understand why they need all this, the teacher finds himself in a situation where he is forced to give only the most necessary things in the lesson, that is, a diagram, or brush aside theory and talk to students about “life” , in which both he and his students sometimes see much more benefit.
The normative model is actually a shortened version of the theoretical one.
The goal is for students to master various social norms:
for example, the study of law, as a set of laws existing in the state
– without studying the basics of the formation of the legal system itself (see Fig. 2).
Norms and values recorded in relevant documents
– – –
Rice. 2. Normative model of teaching social sciences.
This model, of course, is focused on the interests of the state and society as a whole, is based on the need for social regulation, management, explains what it means to be a citizen, the main focus is on preparing students for life in a democratic society. Of course, the school must show and explain to students the norms and values accepted and supported by society. The normative model is often the actual consequence of the insufficient application aspect of the theoretical model. But the logic itself is paradoxical when in the middle school, where this model is very often used, we (“Civics”) tell students what norms must be adhered to, and in high school we try to explain why this is necessary. It turns out that the basis of this logic is not the desire to develop students’ understanding of the interaction between man and society, but only to ensure that children acquire the necessary knowledge and skills. The high variability of norms in modern society also does not contribute to the consistency of this model; it misses the most important thing - independent critical perception of the material.
What type of thinking is formed during such teaching? Both theoretical and normative models claim to develop social thinking. Both presented models, of course, perform certain functions in education, but the analysis shows that not only social critical thinking, but even social thinking practically does not develop in the process of teaching social studies within the framework of these models due to the inconsistency of the methods with the interests, capabilities and learning attitudes of the students themselves. . The theoretical model aims to develop thinking similar to sociological, that is, the Problem “from the outside”.
the formation of sociological thinking at school has already been studied.
Epifantseva M.V. believes that schoolchildren do not have enough life experience and knowledge to develop sociological thinking. As a result, sociological thinking does not develop and is actually “ignored”
real social thinking of high school students.
Both of these models have a pronounced ontological character, when the content of the subject and its assimilation are at the forefront, and there is no active use of the life experience and views of the students themselves. It can be assumed that the theoretical model also equips students with a mechanism for mastering the surrounding reality, but not every student, even in a specialized class, is able to use the proposed schemes to analyze their own life. If we consider education as a system that allows one to adapt to adult life, then the normative model is quite sufficient. Having mastered the norms accepted in society, you can then deftly maneuver, pursuing your own goals, contrary to public ones, “demonstrating”
commitment to what is accepted. And to understand that such designing of one’s life brings harm not only to others, but also to oneself, is possible only if there is a meaningful approach to understanding what is happening in society. The experience of teaching allows us to assert that modern high school students have a greater degree of pragmatism than previous generations, and the problem of such a choice is now even more acute.
The main problem in the development of thinking is that, firstly, social studies lessons are only a small part of everything that determines this process, and secondly, “the development of the ability to think and the process of formal assimilation of knowledge provided for by the programs...
do not coincide automatically, although one is impossible without the other.”
The ability to think develops along with a person’s familiarization with knowledge only if the culture of mental activity becomes the personal property of a person. And exactly the same, according to E.V. Ilyenkov, formal memorization of knowledge can “disfigure” and “cripple” a person’s thinking.
The ability to think begins with a correctly posed question, with a difficulty that can be resolved through a specific consideration of a phenomenon. “A situation that requires, on the one hand, the active use of all previously acquired mental baggage, and on the other, does not fully succumb to it, requiring a small addition of one’s own considerations, creative invention, a bit of independence of action.” To solve a question means to find something third, through which the original sides of the contradiction are connected and transformed into each other. In our case, it turns out that we cannot do without ideas about social reality that already exist, apart from our participation, among our students, because even a well-presented and competently presented theory in the lesson must first be mastered, processed, and then used for analysis reality.
It is impossible to do this during the lesson, so in the teaching process we very often encounter the fact that after our theoretical explanations, students talk about some pressing problem, again using their own “conceptual apparatus” and “their own language.” We put them in the position of theoreticians, but they are not ready. The presentation of theory in a school classroom, within the framework of a subject, often simply gives an idea of what social disciplines are, can show their significance for social management, and introduces the methods of research used by scientists. The theoretical model in the form in which it exists now is intended largely for specialized classes associated with humanitarian universities.
Without in any way diminishing the importance of the main approach associated with the need to create a scientific basis for the knowledge of young people, it should still be noted that our task is not to develop their scientific thinking, which is, in principle, impossible to do at a sufficient level in school.
It is probably necessary to abandon the rigid principle that it is advisable to reveal the material in the basic school according to the principle “from man to society,” and in the senior school mainly “from society to man.” This methodological setting does not take into account the readiness or ability of high school students for such logic of presentation, and concepts and cognitive principles seem to be an end in themselves, and not a tool for analyzing the surrounding reality. Elements of social critical thinking can be developed in the process of teaching social studies in secondary school, but this requires a change in the approach to teaching these disciplines.
1.2.4. Factors that hinder the development of social-critical thinking among high school students related to the characteristics of everyday consciousness.
The difficulty of perceiving theoretical knowledge about society is aggravated by the initial contradiction with the already established views of young people, which may be less perfect, but are easy to use. Society is the immediate environment of a person, which seems to him to be quite familiar. Methods of interaction with it are developed throughout life when solving specific practical problems. Teachers' assurances that it is necessary to study the full depth and complexity of the connections of the social system in order to better navigate the surrounding life seem unconvincing to students. There is a barrier of everyday consciousness that prevents the teacher from trying to force students to analyze the reality around them, “not everyone may like intrusions into everyday life; many would prefer to reject such a transformation of the known into the unknown, since it presupposes a rational analysis of things that have hitherto “run their course.”
D. Dewey emphasizes that the more society develops, the more the content of education is presented in “symbolic form and therefore cannot be translated into the language of familiar actions and objects.
This knowledge is quite specific and superficial. In the ordinary mind, they look artificial because they are not connected with everyday practice. This knowledge lives in its own world, it is not associated with the usual ways of thinking and expressing thoughts.” In order to maintain a proper balance between formal and informal education, it is necessary, according to D. Dewey, to transfer experience through communication. Communication is considered in this case as a process of participation in experience, turning it into a common property. The problem is how to organize full communication in the process of interaction between student and teacher, how to combine the experience of studying society within the framework of scientific concepts, presented by the teacher, and the experience of students based on everyday practice.
As a result, subjects directly related to pressing problems of the social world do not arouse much interest among schoolchildren. To increase the interest of students and develop their social thinking in the process of teaching social studies, it is proposed to devote more time to discussing “acute” problems, but this is also not a panacea for all ills. Social studies as a subject involves significant discussion time; during the discussion, various positions on certain issues are clarified and arguments are given.
Our experience of teaching social science disciplines in high school allows us to distinguish three groups among students:
those who lack interest in learning social 1) facts, which is usually accompanied by a general low motivation for learning in general. The passivity of students in this case is explained by the lack of both the necessary knowledge base for analyzing social processes and an understanding of the possibility of practical application of such knowledge;
those who perceive social phenomena only in an unambiguous 2) context, denying the possibility of the interexistence of different views on the same problem. Such children prefer simple explanations and do not want to delve into the complex structures of society.
For example, when discussing parliamentarism, students refuse to recognize this phenomenon as one of the achievements of mankind, citing public opinion, in which the image of a deputy is not always viewed in a positive way;
those who are inclined to discuss social 3) issues are aimed at deep understanding and provide additional argumentation. Such students are able to both criticize and defend one or another point of view. For example, when discussing parliamentarism, such students not only emphasize the shortcomings of Russia’s democratic structure, but also understand the need for such institutions and try to propose options for improving the political system.
It should be noted that there are fewer representatives of the third group in the class. This attitude towards the study of social science is also associated with the political nihilism of society as a whole. The economic and political experiments of the 90s were not entirely successful; government structures are often seen not as helping, but rather on the contrary, creating more and more problems. In this context of confrontation between the individual and state structures, socio-political disciplines can be considered as a conductor of stereotypes necessary, first of all, for the state. An example of such an everyday attitude to reality: there is no point in participating in elections, certain people will still become deputies, the fate of an ordinary person does not interest them - such arguments are quite often given by students in class.
The problem of indifference to socio-political problems is relevant not only for Russian reality. Peter Sloterdijk, in his book “Critique of Cynical Reason,” discussing the failure of Enlightenment philosophy, characterizes modern German society this way: “they do their job and tell themselves that it would be better not to get involved with anything at all and not to depend on anything... they live from one day to another... in a stream of personal cataclysms and short stories, in convulsive tension and at the same time sluggishly... they feel that some things are hurting, but in most cases what is happening is completely indifferent.” Studying the value of freedom and defending individual rights is the lot of a few scientists, politicians, and practitioners; the rest of the vast majority simply live, and our students are often no exception.
This attitude does not help to increase students' motivation to study social sciences.
1.2.5. Conditions necessary for the development of social-critical thinking in the process of studying social sciences by high school students.
Despite all the obstacles, the system of socio-political disciplines today is undergoing serious changes; there is an active search for methods and approaches to teaching not only at the level of developers of general concepts, but also by practicing teachers themselves. Suggestions are being made about the need to change the design of textbooks, in particular, introducing “drawings of both a serious and comic nature” into them, replacing the faceless cover, using a more diverse font, and increasing visibility. New techniques for working with concepts are proposed, for example, identifying key words used in common practice by students; and then, with the help of the teacher, the students themselves identify essential and necessary features, which are synthesized into the concept. The course program “Man in the world and peace in man,” proposed by teacher from Novouralsk S.N. Butusova, in addition to a large block of knowledge on social philosophy, the history of philosophy and the scientific picture of the world, contains a special chapter on self-knowledge, including problems of socialization, self-government, image. In gymnasium No. 207 “Optimum”
Unfortunately, not all the opportunities offered by the creators of various pedagogical systems are used in the process of studying social sciences. In particular, student-centered learning, which substantiates the need for a transition from “learning as a normatively structured process to learning as an individual activity of a student, its correction and pedagogical support.”
Social comprehension always presupposes the possession of certain skills in consuming information, translating it to the existential level: who am I? what I can? what world do I live in? An extremely abstract model of society and man, proposed, for example, in the course “Man and Society,” does not allow young people to see themselves in the knowledge offered and does not create the basis for individual cognitive activity of students. Understanding, awareness of oneself as a part of society requires comparing our experience with the experience of other people, otherwise we will not be able to see the social in the individual, the general in the particular.
Such a procedure inevitably, according to Z. Bauman, requires a re-evaluation of our own experience, various options for its interpretation, which as a result helps to become more critical, less satisfied with the state of affairs that has developed today, the way we imagine it.
We have already talked above about the need to include students’ personal experience in the learning process, but it should be noted that using the concept of “experience” in relation to the study of social sciences by high school students requires some clarification, since their independent life is just beginning, and many social meanings have been internalized by them indirectly.
In such conditions, the synthesis of experience and knowledge, which the authors of the concept of civic education “rely on,” can turn into mere accompaniment, illustrations for the lesson and will not become the basis of teaching. If we consider as experience the meanings already formed among high school students about society, albeit “second-hand”, not on the basis of our own activities, then the educational process should be built, first of all, on the development of a critical attitude of young people to their own ideas. Social knowledge in this case will help to understand the origin of one’s views (see 1.1.7). A critical attitude towards one’s own views also allows one to get rid of the apparent intelligibility of the social structure.
This approach corresponds to the provisions formulated by L.A. Belyaeva. in the concept of understanding pedagogy. The reflexive model of understanding presupposes the historical and cultural reconstruction of knowledge, the active participation of the cognizing subject, taking into account the individuality of the student, primarily his zone of proximal development. Based on a holistic view of a person’s relationship to the world, Belyaeva L.A. also identifies practical behavioral and value-empathic models of understanding. The process of students’ perception of the surrounding world, in our case social reality, presupposes the unity of all proposed models, since the feeling of being part of society as a whole, including knowledge, value attitudes, and practice, is possible only on the basis of understanding, which is not directly related to the amount of information within the offered courses .
Social-critical thinking also develops when identifying and solving a problem that is significant for students. The “material” that can be used is provided by the life experiences and views of the students themselves. To develop such skills, productive interaction between the teacher and students during the lesson is necessary. Given the extreme saturation of lessons with theoretical material, this is practically impossible; the abandonment of a comprehensive consideration of society in favor of increasing the practice of analyzing social phenomena is obvious. It would be very useful when planning teaching time to initially leave some of the lessons free to discuss the most pressing problems of our time. Unfortunately, the situation in society today contributes to the emergence of various negative phenomena; terrorist attacks and local wars arouse great interest among students and a desire to discuss them with the teacher, to which sometimes the teacher is forced to answer: “Wait, we will cover this topic next month.”
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Khramtsova Elena Vladimirovna
postgraduate student of the Department of Psychology, Moscow Pedagogical State University, Moscow
lena_chumanina@mail. ru
A study of the creative thinking of modern high school students
The social order for a creative personality has contributed to the fact that the study of creative thinking has become a priority direction in domestic and foreign psychology. Creative thinking allows a person to successfully apply knowledge in new conditions, modify the surrounding reality, and productively adapt to rapidly changing socio-economic conditions of life. The study of creative thinking is of particular importance among high school students. Because, on the one hand, it becomes possible to talk about the effectiveness of modern schools in solving the problem of developing students’ creative thinking. On the other hand, high school students are preparing for independent life; they need to determine future prospects, both professionally and personally. Solving life problems, in real terms, they apply knowledge in new conditions, reveal new connections, and formulate plans that are adequate to their own inner essence.
Currently, psychology considers concepts, approaches, units of analysis of creative thinking, its types, forms, levels, stages, functions. Methods for studying creative thinking have been determined, criteria for the product of creativity and the main factors determining the dependence of the development of creative thinking of students on the type of training, the nature of the methodological support of the educational process, and ways of organizing the cognitive activity of students have been identified. However, despite the fact that research into creative thinking is widespread, many questions remain unresolved. In particular, the conceptual apparatus, the nature of creative thinking, and the features of its development at specific stages of ontogenesis and learning are not fully defined.
As part of our research to study the determinants of creative thinking in adolescence, one of the main tasks was to identify the characteristics of creative thinking among high school students. Researchers have repeatedly emphasized that at this age students are most capable of creativity and the formulation of heuristic hypotheses. The development of creative thinking acquires new specifics, determined, on the one hand, by age factors, and on the other, by new conditions of life, learning, interpersonal communication and interaction. In the psychological literature there is conflicting information about the age-related characteristics of the manifestation of creative abilities: some authors express the opinion that creativity manifests itself unevenly, with an interval of four years - at five, nine, thirteen and seventeen years. Others provide data that the level of development of creative thinking remains relatively stable from 3 to 15 years, and increases sharply from 15 to 18. But in both the first and second cases, adolescence is noted as sensitive for the development of creative thinking. Thus, the period of study in high school marks one of the peaks in the development of creative thinking, which is characterized by a fairly high degree of awareness and a lack of spontaneity.
While studying the features of creative thinking of high school students, we adhered to the theory of thinking put forward and substantiated by O.K. Tikhomirov. He noted that the main feature of creative thinking is the level of generalization, the nature of the means used, their novelty for the subject, the degree of activity of the subject of thinking. This approach, in our opinion, makes it expedient to use in experimental research a complex of verbal and nonverbal subtests from the methods of J. Guilford, E. P. Torrance, E. de Bono . Verbal tests included six tasks aimed at determining the verbal side of creative thinking: “Remote associations”, “Words”, “Deduction”, “Options for using objects”, finding a way to complete, the ability to construct a problem. Nonverbal tests included three tasks aimed at determining the nonverbal side of creative thinking: “Interpretation of pictures,” “Completing pictures,” and “Complete the drawing.” When assessing the test results, the characteristics of creative thinking: fluency, flexibility, originality, and uniqueness acted as criteria for the process under study. The subjects were 60 high school students from school No. 1269 and Education Center No. 2000 (Moscow).
In the course of processing the obtained results, descriptive statistics were calculated: the arithmetic mean (M) and standard deviation (σ) of the characteristics of the verbal and non-verbal aspects of creative thinking: fluency, flexibility, originality and uniqueness. When comparing the average indicators (M), it was revealed that the arithmetic mean of flexibility of verbal creative thinking (0.02) has the highest indicator, followed by indicators of uniqueness (0.018), fluency (0.015) and the lowest indicator is originality (0.013).
M.V. Glebova notes that at high school age “the level of productive mental activity is below average.” According to her research, the only exception is the flexibility indicator, which is quite developed. According to the results of our study, the indicator of flexibility in the verbal side of creative thinking in older schoolchildren is higher than other indicators. This is consistent with the results obtained in and once again indicates a high degree of adaptability of intelligence and the ability to change personal attitudes, principles, and ways of thinking of high school students. When comparing the average indicators (M) of the nonverbal side of creative thinking, it was revealed that the arithmetic average of originality (0.011) has the highest value, followed by indicators of uniqueness (0.01), fluency (0.008) and, on the contrary, the lowest indicator is found in flexibility (0.007). Analyzing and comparing the indicators of the characteristics of the verbal and non-verbal sides of creative thinking (fluency, flexibility, originality and uniqueness) of the subjects, we can conclude that the indicators of the characteristics of the verbal side are on average (0.01) higher than the characteristics of the non-verbal side of creative thinking. Consequently, the overall indicator of the results of the verbal side of creative thinking (0.017) is higher than the indicator of its non-verbal side by (0.008).
The results obtained are not accidental; they are due to the traditional education system (the subjects were trained according to the traditional system), where the educational process is largely focused on verbal methods and reproductive mental activity of students. The content, forms, and methods of teaching in general are not sufficiently focused on the targeted formation of intellectual and creative activity of schoolchildren.
In order to identify the presence of relationships between the components of the verbal and non-verbal aspects of creative thinking, the Pearson correlation coefficient was used (since the compared variables belong to an interval scale and their distribution is close to normal). Analysis of correlations showed the presence of significant correlation coefficients. However, it should be noted that the inversely proportional relationship between the components of the two sides of creative thinking is more clearly visible. Correlation coefficients for indicators of verbal fluency and non-verbal uniqueness (-0.259); verbal originality and non-verbal uniqueness (-0.256); verbal uniqueness and non-verbal fluency (-0.262). Their significance turned out to be at the 5% level and had an inversely proportional relationship. This means that for high school students the lines of development of the verbal and nonverbal sides of creative thinking are not sufficiently integrated and special tools and techniques are needed for their purposeful development during the educational process.
At the next stage of analysis of the results of the experimental study, the levels of development of creative thinking of the subjects in this sample were identified. The use of the sigma zone method made it possible to classify indicators as high, medium and low. The average indicators were located within M±σ, indicators above M+σ were considered high, below M-σ - as low. On the verbal side of thinking: 20% of the subjects had high scores, 68.3% had average scores, and 11.7% had low scores. On the non-verbal side: 13% of subjects had high results, 80.2% had average results, and 6.8% had low results. The results obtained indicate an insufficiently high level of development of creative thinking among modern high school students; average indicators turned out to be predominant.
In addition, the results were analyzed and compared separately in the group of boys and girls. The significance of the differences in the indicators of the components of creative thinking turned out to be statistically insignificant, which suggests that there are no differences in the development of creative thinking among girls and boys in high school.
So, a theoretical generalization of works on the problem of the development of creative thinking makes it possible to characterize the senior school age as sensitive for the development of creative thinking. The characteristic features of creative thinking of high school students were experimentally identified. These include a higher level of development of all components of the verbal side of thinking (fluency, flexibility, originality, uniqueness) in comparison with the non-verbal. If the indicators of flexibility, the verbal side are the highest, and the non-verbal side are the lowest, then the indicators of originality, on the contrary, are the highest non-verbal and the lowest - verbal. There is no close relationship between the development of the verbal and nonverbal sides of creative thinking, that is, the development of one of its sides does not contribute to the development of the other side. There are no gender differences; the creative thinking of boys and girls is equally developed. Mostly modern high school students have an average level of development of creative thinking (74%). This makes it possible to talk about the insufficient level of development of creative thinking and the need for targeted use of a system of psychological and pedagogical influences to improve its development in older schoolchildren.
Literature:
1.Bogoyavlenskaya, D.B. Psychology of creative abilities / D.B. Epiphany. – M., 2002 - 320 p.
2. Davydov, V.V. Theory of developmental education / V.V. Davydov. – M., 1996. – 544 p.
3.
Ponomarev, Ya.A. Psychology of creativity and pedagogy / Ya.A. Ponomarev - M., 1976. - 280 - p.
4. Tikhomirov, O.K. Psychology of thinking / O.K. Tikhomirov - M., 2002. - 288 p.
5.Telegina, E.D. Reproductive and productive components of thinking in teaching activities. / Thinking and communication in practical activities. – Yaroslavl, 1992. - pp. 75-76.
6.Amabile, T.M. The Social Psychology of Creativity / T. M . Amabile, - N.Y., 1983, 415 p.
7.
Glebova, M.V. Psychological and pedagogical conditions for the development of productive thinking of high school students in the learning process: dis. ...cand. psychol. Sciences / M.V. Glebova. – St. Petersburg, 2000. – 270 p.
8.
Obukhova, L.F. Development of divergent thinking in childhood / L.F. Obukhova, S.M. Churbanova – M., 1994. – 80 p.
9.
Tunik, E.E. Creative tests (adapted version). – St. Petersburg, 2002. - 82 p.
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A short test of creative thinking. Curly form. - M., 1995. - 48 p.
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Bono, Edward de. Lateral thinking. – St. Petersburg, 1997. - 320 p.
Recommended for publication:
E.D. Telegina, Doctor of Psychology, scientific supervisor of the work
I.A.Baeva, Doctor of Psychology, member of the Editorial Board
Scientific and practical conference of students and teachers
First steps into science
Research
“Development of critical thinking of high school students in literature lessons”
Didenko Larisa Dmitrievna,
Teacher MBOU Secondary School No. 11
them. P.M.Kamozin, Bryansk.
Scientific adviser:
Tokaeva Natalya Viktorovna,
methodologist at the MBOU State Medical Center in Bryansk.
INTRODUCTION
Numerous psychological, pedagogical and socio-pedagogical studies convincingly prove that a person in a democratic society must have critical thinking (CT) , which is necessary in situations of choice and decision-making, understanding forecasts and interpreting information, assessing different opinions and points of view. CM helps an individual navigate the modern rapidly changing world, resist the threat posed by blind faith in authorities, and avoid being a passive relay of stereotypes and an object of manipulation by the media, public groups, and political parties. Thus, criticality acts as an attribute of a developing person actively exploring the world.
The UNESCO document “Education for Renewal and Development for Democracy” emphasizes that one of the priority areas of the educational process is the development of critical thinking in children and adults. The idea of cultivating CM as a humanistic value of enormous social, personal and professional significance is reflected in the educational programs of many countries around the world. This understanding of the role of CM, on the one hand, speaks of relevance and prospectsthis problem, on the other - about the need for its purposeful formation and improvement at all stages of training.
The draft FEDERAL STATE EDUCATIONAL STANDARD OF GENERAL EDUCATION OF THE RF (Secondary (complete) general education) states that the standard is “focused on developing the personal characteristics of a graduate (“portrait of a school graduate”). This is a citizen: ... creative andcritical thinker, actively and purposefully exploring the world, realizing the value of education and science, labor and creativity for individuals and society.” Hence,the development of critical thinking among high school students is not only necessary, but also mandatory in a modern school.
In domestic and foreign pedagogical and psychological literature, CM is considered in the following areas:
- determination of the personal qualities of a critically thinking person (B.V. Zeigarnik, D. Kpuster, S.K. Korol, B.M. Teplov, F. Ruggiero, P. Fazioni, D. Halpern, etc.);
- determining the range of special knowledge and skills that schoolchildren should possess (G. I. Bizenkov, S. I. Veksler, G. Lindsay, R. Paul, R. Thompson, K. Hull, etc.);
- ways and means of forming CM (A. V. Butenko, O. F. Kerimov, T. Yu. Kopylova, I. Ya. Lerner, A. I. Lipkisha, N. A. Menchinskaya, L. A. Rybak, V. M. Sinelnikov, E. A. Khodos, etc.);
- the problem of the formation of a teacher’s thinking, the development of his subjectivity, an essential characteristic of which is CM (K. A. Abulkhanova, I. F. Isaev, M. M. Kashanov, M. M. Levina, A. A. Orlov, L. S. Podymova , V. A. Slastenin, I. L. Fedotenko, N. A. Shaidenko, E. N. Shiyanov, I. R. Shnaider, I. S. Yakimanskaya).
Many psychological studies (L. Binet, P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, I. S. Kon, N. A. Menchinskaya, J. Piaget, D. I. Felshtein, V. Stern) convince us that that the period of high school age is the most favorable for the development of CM. At this stage, the value-orientation activities of students are most fully revealed, various forms of theoretical thinking are developed, and methods of scientific knowledge are mastered.
Analysis of scientific and pedagogical literature allows us to conclude that there is a small number of studies devoted to the critical thinking of high school students in literature lessons, and the practical aspects of the application of critical thinking have not been sufficiently developed. On the other hand, one of the most pressing remains the problem of intensifying the cognitive activity of students in high school. These problems are caused by contradictions:
- between the low level of student motivation for learning and, as a consequence, poor literary preparation and the high demands placed on graduates by society;
- between the knowledge gained in literature lessons and the ability to apply them in life practice and future professional activities;
- between the requirements of society for high literacy of an individual, for his horizons and the existing nature of teaching and raising children in high school;
- between teachers’ understanding of the importance of the formation and development of students’ critical thinking and their unwillingness to solve these problems in practical activities due to the lack of necessary professional competencies.
The need to resolve these contradictions, the relevance, theoretical and practical significance of this problem determinedresearch topic- “Development of critical thinking of high school students in literature lessons.”
The relevance of studying this problem is exacerbated by the existing lack of research into the activities of literature teachers in developing critical thinking among high school students, although it is obvious that the humanities disciplines have enormous developmental and educational opportunities in accordance with modern educational trends.
Numerous psychological, pedagogical and socio-pedagogical studies convincingly prove that a person in a democratic society must have critical thinking (CT), which is necessary in situations of choice and decision-making, comprehension of forecasts and interpretation of information, assessment of different opinions and points of view. CM helps an individual navigate the modern rapidly changing world, resist the threat posed by blind faith in authorities, and avoid being a passive relay of stereotypes and an object of manipulation by the media, public groups, and political parties. Thus, criticality acts as an attribute of a developing person actively exploring the world.
At the same time, the study of the real educational situation convinces that the development of CT is not the goal of the educational process, and in the domestic pedagogical and psychological literature this problem is considered episodically and fragmentarily.
By analyzing the available literature and taking the first steps in applying critical thinking in the educational process, you come to the conclusion that CT is a necessary tool for enhancing the cognitive activity of students, the potential of which has not been exhausted.
The research has applied significance associated with the development of a methodology for developing CM in literature lessons and testing the recommendations of the proposed methodology. This study has socio-economic significance, because its results make it possible to solve current problems of the formation and development of a well-educated and cultural personality. Therefore, the study and use of CM in the educational process is an essential component of preparing students for future working life.
The relevance, undeveloped and unresolved issues of the methodology for developing CT in high school determine the choice of research topic.
Object of studyis the manifestation of CM in high school students when studying literature.
Subject of study- formation of CM in the process of teaching literature in high school.
Purpose of the study- identify pedagogical and psychological conditions conducive to the development of CM; develop methodological recommendations for literature teachers on the development of CM.
Analysis of psychological and pedagogical research on this issue gave grounds to put forward the following hypothesis: the development of CT among high school students will be effective if:
- teachers have formed a value-semantic attitude towards the development of students’ CT;
- a developed model of professional activity of a teacher for the development of CM among high school students has been introduced into the educational process in literature lessons, including target, content, technological, control and evaluation components;
A favorable psychological climate has been created in the classroom;
The age, personality, and individual characteristics of high school students are taken into account;
- the subjective experience of schoolchildren is included in the educational process.
In accordance with the goal and the hypothesis put forward, the following were identified:research objectives:
1. Analyze, systematize and generalize approaches to understanding CM in domestic and foreign research and clarify the boundaries and limits of CM in a pedagogical context.
2. Determine and systematize theoretical principles about the features of the activities of a literature teacher in developing the CM thinking of high school students.
3. Expand the pedagogical understanding of the possibilities for the development of students’ CT in the process of teaching literature: identify and theoretically comprehend new experimental data on the state and dynamics of the development of high school students’ CT.
4. Describe the system of criteria for assessing the levels of CM development of high school students;
5. Offer methodological recommendations for the development of students’ CT in literature lessons.
The experimental base for the study was MBOU Secondary School No. 11 named after. P.M.Kamozina, Bryansk
MAIN PART
- The concept of “critical thinking”.
The term “critical thinking” has been known for a long time. At the same time, it began to be used in the professional language of practicing teachers in Russia relatively recently. This is due to the ambiguity of this concept. On the one hand, CM presupposes a dispute, a conflict.Criticality, based on the views of I. Kant, is, first of all, recognition of the limitations and imperfections of an individual’s own views on society . On the other hand, CM combines the concepts of “critical thinking”, “analytical thinking”, “logical thinking”, “creative thinking”, etc. This is stated in the works of such famous psychologists as J. Piaget, J. Brunner, L. S. Vygotsky.
Today, in various scientific studies one can find completely different definitions of the term “critical thinking”. Critical thinking, according to J. A. Brous and D. Wood, is the search for common sense and the ability to abandon one's own prejudices. According to D. Halpern, critical thinking is “the use of such cognitive skills or strategies that increase the likelihood of obtaining the desired result... is characterized by balance, logic and purposefulness... This definition characterizes thinking as something characterized by controllability, validity and purposefulness - this type of thinking , which is used when solving problems, formulating conclusions, probabilistic assessment and decision making. At the same time, the thinker uses skills that are reasonable and effective for a specific situation and the type of problem being solved.” Critical thinking is defined as "skillful, responsible thinking that promotes good judgment by being criterion-referenced, self-correcting, and responsive to context" in Lipman's writings. D. Kluster defines the characteristics of critical thinking as follows:
This is independent thinking;
Information is the starting point, not the end point
thinking process;
It starts with asking questions and understanding the problems that
needs to be decided;
Strives for enhanced argumentation;
This is social thinking.
No matter how diverse the definitions of CM are, one can see in them a similar meaning, reflecting the evaluative and reflective properties of thinking.It is an open mind that does not accept dogma and develops by applying new information to life's personal experiences.This is where it differs from creative thinking. Critical thinking is the starting point for the development of creative thinking; they develop in synthesis and are interdependent.
The following are distinguished:signs of critical thinking:
Productive thinking, during which a positive experience is formed from everything that happens to a person;
Reasoned, because convincing arguments allow you to make thoughtful decisions;
Multifaceted, as it manifests itself in the ability to consider a phenomenon from different angles;
Individual, because it forms a personal culture of working with information;
Social, since the work is carried out in pairs and groups; The main method of interaction is discussion.
2. Development of critical thinking of high school students in literature lessons.
Teacher's task - create a learning environment where learning occurs through activity. Back in the 14th century, W. Wundt proved that with passive perception of ready-made concepts, a physiological feeling of suffering appears, and with active tension, striving for a specific goal, a feeling of satisfaction appears. Therefore, it is necessary for the child to be active in the lesson, develop, create, and build his own knowledge.
J. Piaget wrote that by the age of 14-16 a person reaches a stage when the best conditions for the development of critical thinking are created. But this does not mean that these skills are developed in each of us to the same extent.
In order for a student to be able to use his critical thinking, it is important for him to develop a number of qualities, among which D. Halpern identifies:
- Ready to plan. Thoughts often arise chaotically. It is important to organize them, to build a sequence of presentation. Orderliness of thought is a sign of confidence.
- Flexibility. If a student is not ready to accept the ideas of others, he will never be able to become a generator of his own ideas and thoughts. Flexibility allows you to wait to make a judgment until the student has a variety of information.
- Persistence. Often, when faced with a difficult task, we put off solving it until later. By developing perseverance in mental tension, the student is sure to achieve much better results in learning.
- Willingness to correct your mistakes.A critical thinker will not justify his wrong decisions, but will draw conclusions and use the mistake to continue learning.
- Awareness. This is a very important quality, which presupposes the ability to observe oneself in the process of mental activity, to track the progress of reasoning.
- Search for compromise solutions. It is important that the decisions made are perceived by other people, otherwise they will remain at the level of statements.
When CT has already been developed, J. Burrell identifies the following characteristics in a critical thinker: they
- solve problems;
- show a certain persistence in solving problems;
- control themselves and their impulsiveness;
- open to other ideas;
- solve problems by collaborating with others;
- listen to the interlocutor;
- empathic;
- tolerant of uncertainty;
- consider problems from different points of view;
- establish multiple connections between phenomena;
- be tolerant of points of view different from their own;
- consider several possibilities to solve the problem;
- frequently asked questions: “What if...?”;
- are able to draw various conclusions;
- reflect on their thoughts, feelings - evaluate them;
- make forecasts, justify them and set deliberate goals;
- apply their skills and knowledge in various situations;
- are inquisitive and often ask “good questions”;
- actively perceive information.
3. Model of technology for the development of critical thinking
A high school student's critical thinking begins with questions and problems, not with answers to the teacher's questions. A person needs critical thinking, which helps him live among people and socialize. The model is based on a three-phase process: challenge - realization of meaning (comprehension of content) - reflection - (reflection).
Call stage is designed to set students up to achieve the goals of the lesson or its individual stage. They are invited to return to the already accumulated knowledge on the proposed topic, and are given the opportunity to analyze their opinions or feelings regarding some issue (phenomenon) related to the learning objectives.
At this stage, “the teacher formulates the task, writes questions on the board, and leaves space for subsequent recording of the collected information. In pair discussions, the teacher participates as a listener.
During pair work, a double effect is achieved, namely:
- knowledge is increased due to the recall of material that the student did not remember while working individually.
- there is a “sorting” of primary submissions, an initial check of their authenticity.
Pair work promotes the development of tolerance and the ability to listen to the partner’s opinion. In addition, the children communicate in the language of the subject, which contributes to the formation of linguistic literacy.
The teacher invites students to make a general list of their knowledge and assumptions on the board; if someone has objections to some information, then he has the right to express his point of view. All information, even erroneous information, is written on the board. At the same time, it is important that the teacher does not encourage correct answers, but the active work of students.
Basically, in lessons, students have a passive role in learning about the goals of the lesson, since the teacher introduces them, but we cannot agree with this, because the teacher and students cannot have the same cognitive goals.
During the lessons, each student is asked to formulate goals regarding the topic of the lesson, name it and evaluate their skills on this topic using a self-assessment scale. Pay attention to what is causing difficulties and what to work on.”
The challenge stage logically leads to the next, meaningful stage.
On stage of realization of meaning (or stage of comprehension of content)Students are engaged in new material that the lesson is devoted to. They actively construct new information and monitor this process themselves, establishing connections between incremental or previously learned material. It is at the stage of realizing the meaning that we work directly with the text - individually, in pairs, in small groups or as a whole class.
The technology for developing CM differs from the usual introduction to new material in a lesson in that it uses techniques that allow you to direct perception.
To direct the perception of information, to make the degree of its assimilation higher, it is necessary to effectively carry out the challenge stage.
Each student has determined for himself the goals of getting to know new information, so the teacher can withdraw at the stage of perceiving something new. The teacher’s task is to organize the process, and this means not only choosing a technique with which to direct the perception of new information, but also skillfully coordinating the challenge stage with the information received by the students. The teacher, when planning a lesson, must remember that at the first stage we are not making a challenge at all, but a challenge to exactly the information contained in the text. The structure of the text must correspond to the structure that was set at the challenge stage during pair work. This, on the one hand, makes the work of students easier, and on the other hand, it “narrows” the topic, preventing it from going beyond specific boundaries, which contributes to greater attentiveness while learning the information.
In addition, a prerequisite for such work is the presence in the text of both familiar and new information. Of course, for some there will be a lot of new information, but for others there will be a lack of it. This is not surprising: after all, everyone’s “starting capital” of knowledge is different; the text must contain the correct information if we want to lead students not to argue, but to learn something new.
When planning a lesson, you need to carefully select the material, taking into account that each class, like each student in it, requires a special approach.
Students must not only read the proposed text, but also mark it.
“V” - I knew it;
“+” - I didn’t know this (new information);
“-” - I thought differently;
"?" - unclear or insufficient information.
Each student individually reads the text, making signs, while checking the information collected at the challenge stage with the information in the text.
The perception of information occurs actively, since, on the one hand, the need to put signs “ties” to the text, on the other hand, in order to put this or that sign, the student must compare previous knowledge with the information received. Consequently, the student’s cognitive activity becomes not only active, but also “thoughtful”, as he comprehends his own understanding.
On stages of reflectionStudents are invited to analyze the process of mastering new content they have just completed and its content itself. This stage provides an opportunity to evaluate oneself and one’s comrades in terms of incremental knowledge; analyze the process, methods and techniques used during training; identify areas where additional work is needed. The reflection stage provides a real opportunity and incentive to return to the stage of realizing meaning if the student himself has determined the need for further work with the text. In addition, reflection often presents a new challenge if additional questions arise and additional learning activities are required.
“Reflection in the lesson can be carried out using the following techniques: “thoughts by analogy”, “reflection from the opposite”, etc.
It is important to choose a specific position. What do we want? So that everyone remembers everything? So that everyone remembers the most important things? Of course, this would be an ideal result.
When using TRKM Each student will remember the information that turned out to be relevant for him, which will be useful to him in the future, since unnecessary information is quickly forgotten.
However, it is important that at this stage there is a rethinking of previous knowledge, including testing it for correctness.
In addition, it is very important that reflection is not overloaded with techniques, but that the most important ones are selected that can help achieve a certain goal.”
Coordination of all stages of the lesson is also important. It should not only be meaningful, but the techniques used should have something in common. And if students read the text using the marking technique, then at the reflection stage you can offer them to work with a marking table. But it is necessary to remember and understand that this is not just rewriting a text, but the ability to formulate a thought in two or three words, translate it into your language, and, therefore, understand it. The teacher’s attitude is important, otherwise such work may become meaningless.
One of the most important columns of the table can be called the column in which questions that arose during reading (“thick and thin” questions) are written down.
Just look at this table to understand the essence of this technique.
Technique “Thick and Thin Questions”
The “Thick and Thin Questions” technique is known and used in the following teaching situations.
- To organize a mutual survey. After studying the topic, students are asked to form
three “thick” and three “thin” questions related to the material covered. Then they poll each other using their tables.
- To start a conversation on the topic being studied. Questions should not be hasty, but thoughtful. Only then can one judge the main directions of studying the topic and what interests students.
- To identify questions left unanswered after studying a topic.
This technique develops the ability to assess the appropriateness of a particular formulation, at least in terms of time; the teacher’s desire to teach children to ask them.
What a person asks undoubtedly shows how he thinks. But as he reads, he only poses questions where he does not understand, there is not enough information to better understand, i.e. he poses questions for himself, to satisfy his own cognitive interests. Therefore, there is nothing in common between the questions that arose during reading and special training in the skill of asking “smart” questions.
If the lesson went well, the student will definitely answer the questions, whether they will be “thick” or “thin”. This doesn’t matter to him, the main thing is that these are his questions.
- Creation of a Cluster(or adding new connections to the cluster).
A cluster is one of the ways of graphically organizing material, a certain structure, each cell of which is certain information, i.e. blocks of information (“clusters of thoughts”).
S.V. Stolbunova suggests using the cluster at the challenge stage, but it can also be used at the last stage of the lesson. After all, a cluster is the last basic diagram that will remain in students’ memory, on paper, so it is necessary to enter only correct, verified information into it. It will be possible to work with this scheme further, for example, compose an oral story based on it, supplement it with information in subsequent lessons.
- Work in groups. Project creation, protection.
- Practical application of acquired knowledge (see appendix).
- Creating a syncwine- a poetic form of reflection.
The word “cinquain” is French, meaning “five lines.” There are certain rules when writing it.
- The first line is the theme of the poem, expressed in one word, usually a noun.
- The second line is a description of the topic in two words, usually using adjectives.
- The third line is a description of the action within this topic in three words, usually verbs.
- The fourth line is a four-word phrase expressing the author’s attitude to this topic.
- The fifth line is one word - a synonym for the first word, characterizing the essence of the subject or object.
Sinkwine allows the teacher to solve several problems at once.
First, change the atmosphere in the classroom, make it creative. The guys like to create.
Secondly, this technique allows you to check how students remember the most important concepts of the topic.
Sinkwine allows the teacher to find out how the children feel in the lesson, whether they like the topic being studied.
Cinquain can be written individually, in pairs or in groups after reading the text.
There are many different poetic forms that can be successfully used at the reflection stage.
Haiku (or haiku) is a Japanese three-line poetic form.
Haiku writing scheme:
Line 1: “I was” someone or something or “I saw” someone or something
I was a leaf.
Line 2: Place and action (Where and what did you do?).
Growing in the forest, giving food.
Line 3: Definition (how?).
Without meaning to.
Very useful for working with concepts that are opposite in meaning is to write diamonds.
Diamond is a poetic form of seven lines, the first and last of which are concepts with opposite meanings.
Diamond pattern:
Line 1: theme (noun)
Line 2: definition (two adjectives)
Line 3: action (three verbs)
Line 4: associations (four nouns)
transition to antonymous concepts.
Line 5: action (three verbs)
Line 6: definition (two adjectives)
Line 7: topic (one noun).
Writing diamonds is very useful for students to understand the essence of the differences and relationships between concepts that are opposite in meaning.
So, the use of various types of artistic poetry at the stage of reflection (syncwine, haiku, diamond, poem - drawing) can be quite effective for the development of thinking.
- At this stage, as indeed at the stages of calling and realizing meaning, what is important is, first of all, the process, not the result.
- Reflection occurs at different speeds for each of us. Therefore, it is necessary to give enough time for reflection, this will increase its effectiveness.
- Engage both the student's mind and senses. Not only logical conclusions, but also emotional experiences seem important. An emotionally charged response indicates the student’s sincere interest in the topic being studied.
- It is advisable to use both oral and written forms of reflection. This will allow students to formulate their thoughts more clearly and better remember the material they have studied.
- Refrain from imposing your point of view. Your intervention may inhibit students' own thinking, making them afraid to express their views.
- Encourage all students to participate in reflection. To do this, you can use techniques of working in pairs and in groups.
To develop critical thinking, it is necessary to create and use special methodological tools. The structure of technology, developed by American teachers J. Steele, K. Meridith and C. Temple, is harmonious and logical, since its stages correspond to the natural stages of an individual’s cognitive activity.
4. Technology for the development of critical thinking - stages and methodological techniques
Technological stages | Activity teachers | Activity students | Possible techniques and methods |
Stage I (phase) Call: Updating existing knowledge; Arousing interest in obtaining new information; The student sets his own learning goals. | Aimed at challenging students’ existing knowledge on the issue being studied, intensifying their activities, and motivating them for further work | The student “remembers” what he knows about the issue being studied (makes assumptions), systematizes information before learning new material, and asks questions to which he wants answers. | Compiling a list of “known information”: story-assumption using keywords; systematization of material (graphic): tables; true and false statements; mixed up logical chains; brain attack; problematic issues, etc. |
Information received at the call stage is listened to, recorded, and discussed. Work is carried out individually, in pairs or groups. | |||
Stage II Understanding the content: Obtaining new information; Adjustment by the student of the set learning goals. | Aimed at maintaining interest in the topic while directly working with new information, gradual progression from knowledge of the “old” to the “new” | The student reads the text using active reading methods suggested by the teacher, making notes in the margins or taking notes as they comprehend new information. | Active reading methods: maintaining various records such as diaries, logbooks; searching for answers to the questions posed in the first part of the lesson |
At the stage of understanding the content, direct contact with new information is made (text, film, lectures, etc.). Work is carried out individually or in pairs. In group work, two elements must be present - individual search and exchange of ideas, and personal search certainly precedes the exchange of opinions. | |||
III. Reflection: Reflection, the birth of new knowledge; Setting new learning goals by the student. | The teacher should: return students to the original assumption notes; make changes; give creative, research or practical tasks based on the information studied | Students relate “new” information to “old” information, using the knowledge acquired at the stage of understanding the content. | Filling out tables. Establishing cause-and-effect relationships between blocks of information. Return to keywords. Answers to the questions asked. Organization of oral and written round tables. Organization of various types of discussions. Writing creative works. Research on specific issues of the topic, etc. |
At the reflection stage, analysis, creative processing, and interpretation of the studied information are carried out. Work is carried out individually, in pairs or in groups. |
5.Advantages of technology for developing critical thinking
The technology of critical thinking involvesequal partnerships, both in terms of communication and in terms of constructing knowledge generated in the learning process. Working in critical thinking technology mode,the teacher ceases to be the main source of information, and, using technology techniques, turns learning into a collaborative and interesting exploration.
Critical thinking technology gives the student:
- increasing the efficiency of information perception;
- increasing interest both in the material being studied and in the learning process itself;
- ability to think critically;
- the ability to take responsibility for one’s own education;
- ability to work in collaboration with others;
- improving the quality of education for students;
- desire and ability to become a lifelong learner.
The technology of critical thinking gives the teacher:
- the ability to create an atmosphere of openness and responsible cooperation in the classroom;
- the ability to use a teaching model and a system of effective methods that promote the development of critical thinking and independence in the learning process;
- become practitioners who can competently analyze their activities;
- become a source of valuable professional information for other teachers.
Literature lessons contribute to the development of CT through a variety of material and interactive approaches. The technology for developing critical thinking through reading and writing stands out among innovative pedagogical ideas for its successful combination of problematic and productive learning with the technological effectiveness of the lesson, effective methods and techniques. Using the “Critical Thinking” technology in literature lessons, the teacher develops the student’s personality, resulting in the formation of communicative competence that provides comfortable conditions for cognitive activity and self-improvement. The teacher stimulates the student’s interests, develops his desire to practically use knowledge in this subject, as well as to study, thereby making it possible to achieve success in mastering the subject.
KM technology helps prepare children of a new generation (in accordance with new education standards) who can think, communicate, hear and listen to others. Schoolchildren become interested in learning. The knowledge acquired within the framework of this technology becomes relevant for them, the quality of education improves and, most importantly, the focus is on the student’s personality.
KM is independent thinking. When a lesson is built on the principles of CM, each student forms his own ideas, assessments and beliefs independently of the others. Consequently, thinking can be critical only when it is individual in nature, i.e. Students should have enough freedom to think for themselves and solve even the most complex issues on their own.
CM is social thinking. Every thought is tested and sharpened when it is shared with others. When we argue, read, discuss, object and exchange opinions with other people, we clarify and deepen our own position, therefore, working in line with CM, the teacher tries to use types of pair and group work in the lessons, including debates and discussions, as well as various types of publications of students' written work.
The use of technology for the development of critical thinking (TRKM) liberates and gives confidence to students. The student is not afraid to make mistakes and express his opinion. During the learning process, the student himself constructs the process, based on his capabilities and abilities, real and specific goals, and determines the final result himself. Learning through personal discovery is a long process. The teacher gives students the opportunity to realize their abilities and find themselves.
During the application of TRKM:
- generalized knowledge, skills, habits and ways of thinking are taught;
- it becomes possible to combine individual disciplines;
- conditions are created for variability and differentiation of training;
- a focus on self-realization is formed, and one’s own individual learning technology is developed.
Of course, one can argue about the effectiveness of the structure and techniques of TRKM, the applicability of the technology in general for literature lessons, but TRKM is a worthwhile endeavor if you thoroughly understand the essence of what you are doing and why. Technology is not a way to colorize a lesson, to make lessons interesting for yourself. This technology is designed for the student, in order to bring him closer to the process of cognition, so that he enjoys the use of gaming techniques, group forms of work, and frequent changes of activities. The introduction of TRKM ensures a high-quality level of language education: mastery of the norms of the literary language, enrichment of vocabulary and competent speech structure of students.
The technology for developing critical thinking about receiving, perceiving and transmitting information, therefore it is universal.
Changes in the goals of modern education entail a change in all components of the educational process, the need to move from an explanatory and illustrated method of teaching to an activity-based one. It is the practice of using research teaching methods in the educational process that is increasingly used. Among the leading methods is the project method.
While working on a project, the student feels that the process is focused on him and his personality, and his activities are based on his own experience, interests and inclinations. When working on a project, discussion and resolution of problems that are of interest to the student himself become of great importance. Students get the opportunity to discuss interesting topics, problems of a philosophical and universal nature, learn to express their opinions, analyze, generalize, and justify their own position. During the lessons, the teacher successfully combines classroom, group, and individual forms of organizing student activities. Groups can change their composition depending on the task and interests. Collaborative learning is a model of organizing student activities in small groups, in which everyone is involved in joint activities with responsibility for their own actions and the actions of everyone.
Free choice of form of communication (work in pairs, in groups, interaction with a teacher, whose role changes from an examiner to a consultant, an equal interlocutor-partner, a psychologist, a mentor, a creator of an atmosphere of cooperation and mutual understanding between teacher and student). The teacher sees each student, group and class as a whole, and provides conditions for creating an atmosphere of creativity. The result - a free choice of the form of communication - has a beneficial effect on the psychological climate as a whole and everyone’s sense of comfort.
Activities within the project allow students to get acquainted with new approaches to studying a topic, evaluate and systematize information, and reach a new level of understanding problems. The project is aimed at personality-oriented learning, allows students to develop their creative abilities, transfer existing knowledge, skills and abilities to a new situation, promotes the development of dialogical thinking, and the formation of their own point of view.
Student activities within the educational and research project are related to:
- with free search for data from various sources;
- with ways to organize data;
- with the ability to use keywords, analyze information, present it in a specific form (table of interview results, sociological questions; finding information about the life and work of a writer, formatting research results in the form of a multimedia presentation, website, etc.)
While working on a project, students acquire and develop practical skills in working with informational, artistic and literary texts, video materials, illustrated materials, skills in creating their own texts, which encourages oral speech, since the technology of the project methodology at the last stage involves the presentation of the project, defense and presentation of their research work. While working on his work, the student acts as an interlocutor and enters into dialogue. Firstly, with the intended reader, and secondly, in an internal dialogue, with oneself. By turning to his inner world, the student becomes more clearly and vividly aware of his place in the reality around him and the properties and qualities of reality itself, and gets the opportunity to express himself in words, creating a special type of reality. Information technologies make it possible to express oneself in the creation of hypertext.
When summing up the results of work on a project, it is important that students themselves evaluate their activities, analyze their own achievements, and see prospects for further improvement.
Students' projects on literature can be presented as:
Thematic presentations, publications;
Quiz, Olympiads in the subject;
Collective writing of creative works (fairy tales, short stories, etc.);
Thematic collection of poems by poets;
Readers' conferences on works of modern and foreign literature;
Creating multimedia presentations, etc.
Let's present a description of one of the projects.
Study project topic and creative project name:
“To be or to have. What is a sense of life?" (Study of L.N. Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” in 10th grade).
Fundamental Question: What do I choose: “to be” or “to have”.
Study topic questions:
- What are “eternal questions”?
- What “eternal questions” are stated by Leo Tolstoy in the novel “War and Peace?” Why, in your opinion, one of the most important questions is the question: what is truth? What is the meaning of life?
Academic subjects: literature, computer science, fine arts, Russian language.
Participants : subject teachers, 10th grade students.
Didactic goals of the project:
- To promote self-determination of students and their choice of life position.
- Develop the ability to enter into dialogue with the author of a work of art.
Methodological tasks:
- Expand students' understanding of the work of Leo Tolstoy.
- To develop the ability to conduct problem analysis of a literary text.
- To promote the development of comparative analysis skills and the identification of antinomic relationships.
- Learn to use Power-Point, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Publisher to format the results.
Project abstract:
The project is focused on the current program and can be integrated within the educational process.
The project corresponds to the following points of the thematic curriculum of the subject: analysis of an episode of a prose work, interpretation of a literary text, cross-cutting themes in Russian and world literature, the antinomy of moral freedom and power, study of the work of Leo Tolstoy in the modern sociocultural context.
As part of the project, students can conduct independent research on the topics: “Good and evil in Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace”, “Discourse on the search for truth”, “What gives the right to eternal questions to be called eternal”, “Why does antonymy arise: to be or to have”, “The problem of freedom of choice, what and why I can choose and choose”, “Eternal questions in Leo Tolstoy’s novel “War and Peace” /
Activities within the project will allow students to interpret, evaluate and systematize information, to reach a new level of understanding of the problems stated in the work of art and discussed in critical literature. The project is aimed at student-centered learning, allowing students to develop their creative abilities and transfer existing knowledge, skills and abilities to a new learning situation.
The project promotes the development of dialogical thinking and the formation of a philosophical vision of “eternal” problems, allows you to develop creative abilities, and reach the level of proficiency in interdisciplinary and above-subject knowledge. The use of computer technology allows students to develop cognitive skills, develop the ability to independently structure their knowledge, navigate the information space, and the ability to see, formulate and solve a problem.
The use of information technology has become firmly established in the practice of teachers, but with computer support for lessons, the role of the teacher remains the leading one in the educational process, and the importance of the teacher in the process of communication between the student and the computer does not decrease. Teachers are attracted to information technology because it allows them to increase the volume of training exercises, differentiate them by volume and degree of difficulty, and organize individual and group work. Good results can be obtained when working with text using information technology in speech development lessons.
In high school, special attention is paid to the development of basic communication skills of students, specified by the Federal component of the State Standard. This development can become more successful withapplication of information technology.
When working with text, students have difficulties not only with information processing of the text, but also with the ability to divide it into paragraphs, draw up a plan, and the ability to structure the text (construction). The student must possess these skills when performing the test work. The computer makes it easy to move pieces of text. The student can change the text many times, realize the differences between several options, as it makes them clear, and choose the optimal one.
Additionally, the computer allows the student to demonstrate the differences notes (composing text from fragments of primary text), annotations (brief description of the content of the text - what is it about?) and abstract (a brief summary of the main ideas of the text - the author’s position on any problem or issue).
6. Practical results of the study.
Analysis of the effectiveness of using TRCM showed that students prefer these forms of learning. 100% of students in grades 10-11 consider it possible and necessary to use TRKM in literature lessons, since, in their opinion, such technologies contribute to the comprehensive development of the individual, teach them how to work with various sources of information, teach self-analysis of activities, and allow them to take a fresh look at the material being studied.
Students note that the lessons have become more interesting for them, they have the opportunity to use visual aids more actively, information technologies allow them to express themselves both in working on a project, text, and in oral defense, which prepares them for the future. But, nevertheless, students note that information technology should not take a leading position, since a literature lesson should be primarily a literature lesson, where the main role belongs to the book and its author.
The level of independence in solving educational problems has increased, a focus on self-education has appeared, the creative activity of students has increased, the nature of learning motivation has changed (they study not for the sake of a grade, but because they are interested, an opportunity has appeared for self-realization in the learning process).
Dynamics of educational achievements of students over the past 3 years:
Results of extracurricular activities in the subjects taught:
2008 - Left Igor took2nd place in the city competition"Heroic pages of the history of the Russian fleet."
2008 - Angelina Lakhtikova was awarded a diploma from the competition commission of the regional stage VIAll-Russian competition"Best Writing Lesson - 2008" asregional finalistcompetition in the category “Letter to my teacher.”
2009 - Lakhtikova Angelina took2nd place in Bryansk regionin the All-Russian children's competition "Gagarin in the fate of my country."
2009 - 2010 Lysak Ksenia was awarded in the category “The most sincere reading of a poem”in the regional competitionreaders "My Motherland".
2009 - 2010 - Left Igor took part inBryansk corporate regional Olympiadfor students in the Russian language, conducted by BSU. Twice he qualified for the Second Round. In 2010, he took 11th place in it. Parshikova Anastasia also took part in the same Olympiad, who also qualified for the full-time round and took 5th place.
2010 - Natalya Belyavtseva was awarded a diploma from the Department of General and Professional Education of the Bryansk Region for2nd place in the regional essay competition“The Rare Gift of Lyricists,” dedicated to the work of the poet Nikolai Posnov.
2010 - 2011 Lysak Ksenia took3rd place in the regional competitionreaders "My Motherland".
2011 - Vladislav Borisova took over2nd place in the region in the International Competition “Russian Bear Cub”.
2011 - Gorbacheva Yulia -3rd place in the region V International competition "Russian Bear".
2011 students took partin the M.V. Lomonosov tournament.Lakhtikova Angelina and Sukhanova Alla were included in the list of students nominated for awards in linguistics, Apokina Varvara - in literature.
2011 - Aldushina Maria took part inregional competitionschool essays “The fate of civilians in the history of the Great Patriotic War.”
2011 - Apokina Varvara and Vodicheva Irina -winners of the municipal stage of the All-Russian Literature Olympiad.
2012 - Alla Sukhanova became winner of the correspondence round Lomonosov Olympicsconducted by Moscow State University, and entered the full-time round.
CONCLUSION
The theoretical analysis of the problem of CM development and the experimental research carried out allow us to draw the following conclusions:
- At high school age, favorable conditions are created for the development of CT, associated with the formation of abstract thinking, increased heuristic potential, the need for self-determination, increased self-awareness and self-esteem, and the formation of a worldview.
- The presented experimental study created the opportunity to introduce and test a model of the activity of a literature teacher for the development of CT among high school students, which consists of target, content, technological, control and evaluation components, which has not only theoretical but also practical significance for improving the quality of training of secondary school graduates educational institutions.
- To increase the effectiveness of a teacher’s activities in developing CT among high school students, the following psychological and pedagogical conditions must be met:
- advanced training of teachers according to a special program;
- the formation of a value-semantic attitude among teachers towards the development of critical thinking of students;
- inclusion of the subjective experience of schoolchildren in the educational process;
- creating a favorable psychological climate in the classroom;
- taking into account the age, personality, and individual characteristics of high school students, the development of their subjective characteristics.
- The results of the study showed that the level of CT development of students in experimental classes is significantly higher than in the rest. This indicates the effectiveness of the developed pedagogical model.
Thus, the research problem has been solved, the hypothesis has been proven, and the results allow us to consider that the goal of the work has been achieved.
It has been experimentally established that the development of CM increases the intellectual activity and independence of students and contributes to the growth of cognitive interest and moral improvement. CM occupies an important place in the personality structure of high school students: it lays the foundations of theoretical thinking, promotes conscious socialization, knowledge and disclosure of one’s own and others’ mistakes and shortcomings in order to overcome them, removes psychological barriers, teaches how to correctly perceive constructive criticism and respond to it in a businesslike manner, develops an active life position. KM in high school age is a path to deeper self-knowledge, the formation of adequate self-esteem, i.e. desire for improvement.
The conducted theoretical study of critical thinking highlighted its personal and social significance, humanistic value, relevance of development, as well as the variety of approaches to its definition, role, structure, functions, objects.
Bibliography
- Halpern D. Psychology of critical thinking. St. Petersburg: Peter, 2000.
- S.I. Zaire-Bek, I.V. Mushtavinskaya. Development of critical thinking in the classroom. Moscow, “Enlightenment”, 2004.
- Kluster D. What is critical thinking? // Developing critical thinking through reading and writing. Part 1. Supplement to the newspaper “First of September”. 2001.
- Kant I. Critique of Pure Reason / Trans. with him. N. O. Lossky with variants per. in Russian and European languages. M.: Nauka, 1999.
- Butenko A.V., Khodos E.A. Critical thinking: method, theory, practice, M., 2002.
- Alekseeva M.A.
- Lipman, 1988.
APPLICATION
Literature lesson notes in 10th grade
using technology for developing critical thinking.
Developed by L.D. Didenko, teacher at Secondary School No. 11.
L.N. Tolstoy. Life and destiny. Stages of the creative path. Spiritual quest of the writer.
Lesson Objective:1 ) summarize, systematize and expand knowledge on this topic;
2) develop skills and abilities in working with text;
3) cultivate interest in the subject.
Tasks:
- Arouse interest in the life and personality of Tolstoy.
- Help students understand the writer’s artistic worldview.
Epigraph:
Everyone -
a diamond that can cleanse
And don't cleanse yourself. To the extent
in which he is purified,
through him shines eternal light.
Therefore, it is up to man
don't try to shine,
But try to cleanse yourself.
L.N. Tolstoy.
Equipment: tables, student folders with reference materials, printed texts, explanatory dictionaries,computer, presentation with photographs of Leo Tolstoy
DURING THE CLASSES
- Stage “Challenge” (awakening interest in the subject)
" Brain attack"
Tasks:
- update existing knowledge, skills and abilities in connection with the material being studied;
- awaken cognitive interest in the material being studied;
- help students independently determine the direction in studying the topic and independently decide Problems.
Teacher : How do you understand the epigraph of the lesson?
What do you know about the topic of today's lesson?
Student answers:
Students' stories about the eventful life of Leo Tolstoy.
(during the students’ story, you can show photographs of the writer related to the named facts)
Stages of life and ideological and creative development of L. Tolstoy.
- 1828-1849 Childhood, adolescence. Youth: the origins of personality.
- 1849-1851 Yasnaya Polyana: the experience of independent living.
- 1851-1855 Military service. On the way to "War and Peace".
- 1860-1870 Writer, public figure, teacher.
- 1880-1890 “I renounced the life of our circle.”
The best works of Tolstoy.
- "War and Peace" (1864-1869)
- "Anna Karenina" (1870-1877)
- "Power of Darkness" (1866)
- "Kreutzer Sonata" (1889-1889)
- "Resurrection" (1889-1899)
- "Hadji - Murat" (1896-1905)
- Comedy "The Fruits of Enlightenment" (1900)
- Journalistic articles “I Can’t Be Silent”, “Thou Shalt Not Kill and Others” (1908)
9. “After the Ball” (1903)
Showing the writer’s “social circle and historical events.”
Questions for students:
1.What historical events was the writer a witness to?
2. In what years does his creativity flourish?
Teacher's word.
Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy is a writer of enormous talent and hard work, the author of brilliant works known throughout the world.
The moral height that Tolstoy the man achieved is the result of enormous, never-ending internal work, the highest demands on himself, a merciless analysis of his behavior, overcoming his weaknesses (ambition, vanity, inconsistency, failure to fulfill plans, laziness, sloppiness, haste, timidity. Tolstoy himself pointed out these shortcomings).
2. Stage “Comprehension” (comprehension of the material while working on it)
Tasks:
- Help students actively perceive the material being studied:
- Help correlate old knowledge with new knowledge.
Teacher: In your notebooks, build a marking table with three columns: “I know,” “I want to know,” and “Learned.”
Teacher:
Let's imagine that one of the students in our class visited Tolstoy's house in Yasnaya Polyana. Let's take a correspondence tour with him to memorable places associated with the name of the writer, reading the text (reading the text aloud by students) "L.N. Tolstoy." In the first column of the table, enter the knowledge you know about this topic. The second - what you would like to know, and the third - what new things you learned from the text. (All students receive a printed text and work in pairs).
Printout:
Our first impressions of the trip to Yasnaya Polyana are connected with the guide’s story about how during the Patriotic War people saved Tolstoy’s House from fire and from looting by the Nazis. And here we are walking along the ground, dusted with the first snow, where Lev Nikolaevich walked, where even the air seems somehow special - Yasnaya Polyana...
So we enter the house. We enter very quietly. Already in the hallway there are bookcases with books. This is part of a huge library that belonged to three generations of Tolstoys: the maternal grandfather - Prince Volkonsky, the father of Lev Nikolaevich and Tolstoy himself.
The largest room in the house is the hall. The absence of any luxury items is striking. From the hall we move to the living room, where T.A. Ergolskaya lived, who raised Tolstoy, his brothers and sister. After Ergolskaya’s death, Sofia Andreevna’s room was here, which also served as a dining room. Next to the living room is the writer’s office, which occupies a central place in the museum. No one entered this peculiar fortress of his during work. Sofya Andreevna strictly guarded her husband’s peace and did not allow anyone to see him at odd hours. The entire furnishings of the office, as well as numerous “trifles,” were preserved in their entirety. It seems that only Tolstoy has just left this room...
In the last years of the writer’s life, the room next to the office was his bedroom. A simple iron bed, a bedside table, a faience washbasin, two armchairs with slatted backs, and a bureau. On the walls are portraits of father, wife, daughters Masha and Tanya. You vividly imagine how at 12 o'clock at night Lev Nikolaevich enters the bedroom, lights a candle, takes a notebook, an eternal pen and makes another entry.
Behind the wall of the office, on the north side, there are two adjacent rooms: the “secretary” and the library. Tolstoy jokingly called them the office. Here draft manuscripts were rewritten, articles banned by censorship were reproduced, and responses to letters were written. For the convenience of the author (due to poor handwriting), drafts were rewritten at home: for example, “War and Peace” was rewritten four times, “Anna Karenina” - seven times, “Prisoner of the Caucasus - 100 times” (!)
Leaving the house, we go down to the first floor and go into a room under the arches, well known from Repin’s painting. It was here that the plan matured and the beginning of the great novel “War and Peace” was written, which naturally arouses special interest among visitors.
And finally, a nicer room - the room for visitors. Friends of Lev Nikolaevich's family usually stayed here, including: I, S, Turgenev, A, A, Fet, A, P, Chekhov, I, E, Repin, V, G, Korolenko and many others. Households also called this room, furnished mainly with bookcases, the lower library or the bust room. In the lower library Tolstoy wrote (in 1873-1877) “Anna Karenina”. Here the writer more than once experienced both creative insight and a painful search for the truth of life. The coffin with his body, brought on November 9, 1910, was also installed here...
We are leaving Yasnaya Polyana. From Tolstoy's house in deep thought and excitement. After all, questions that worried the great writer all his life. They have not lost any of their relevance. They seem to be directly addressed to us:“how to maintain kindness and love?”answering them today is no easier, no simpler...
Teacher : The completed table is voiced by one person from the group (preferably weak).
Teacher : We have completed the first part of our lesson.
The second part sounds like this: “Spiritual quest.”
What do you know about this issue? What associations do you have? (the task was given in advance to write down the commandments of Christ in a notebook)
Students in groups form a cluster(graphical representation of the topic)“Grapes” on the theme “Spiritual quest» ( On the students’ tables there are prepared sheets of “ovals”, on which the students write their notes with felt-tip pens; the image should be bright and neat).
For advertising, these leaflets are hung on the board.
Individual task
Working with an explanatory dictionary.
Teacher: Look up the dictionary entry that explains the meaning of the word anathema.
Student: Anathema (Greek ἀνάθεμα - “ excommunication" from ἀνατίθημι - “to lay down, impose”) - initially - a sacrifice to the gods according to a given vow, dedication to a deity; later - separation (of someone from the community), expulsion, a curse .
Pupil: He was convinced that a mediator between God and man was not needed.In response to the decision of the Synod, he explicitly stated that he rejected the “incomprehensible Trinity,” the “meaningless fable of the fall of the first man,” and the “blasphemous story of God, born of a virgin, redeeming the human race.” He calls the teachings of the Church “an insidious and harmful lie, a collection of the grossest superstitions and witchcraft that hide the meaning of Christian teaching.” Tolstoy considered prayers and church sacraments to be witchcraft.At the same time, the writer’s religious and aesthetic views were based on the doctrine of true life. Its meaning is spiritual love for your neighbor as for yourself. Man’s paths to true life were concretized in the teaching about moral self-improvement of man, which includes the 5 commandments of Christ:
The commandment of non-resistance to evil by violence.
Do not commit adultery, keep your family life pure
Never take revenge on anyone, do not justify your feelings of revenge by saying that you were offended, tolerate insults
Do not swear or swear to anything or anyone
In the spring of 1847, Tolstoy was briefly hospitalized. Here he began to keep a diary, and then continued it in rural solitude, during military service in St. Petersburg, traveling around Europe... The last diary entry was made three days before his death. In it we can see the true views of Leo Tolstoy.
Teacher: Try to continue formulating the topic of the lesson by composing a problematic question using the word anathema.
(for example, does excommunication (anathema) affect a person’s moral purity?)
Teacher: Can the lesson's epigraph help answer this question?
This question will become your D/Z.Answer it in writing, citing two arguments from fiction.
3 . Stage "Reflection"
(summarizing the material, summing up)
Tasks:
- Help students independently summarize the material they have learned
- Help students independently determine directions in further study of the material
1. Filling out the control card “L.N. Tolstoy. Life and destiny. Stages of the creative path."
(students fill out the left side of the table independently)
Years of life | 1828 - 1910 |
Yasnaya Polyana | During the Patriotic War, people saved the Tolstoy House from fire and from looting by the Nazis. Rooms of the estate, a huge library, a room for visitors (lower library). Lack of luxury. |
Six stages of the creative journey |
|
The best works of Leo Tolstoy |
9. “After the Ball” (1903) |
Spiritual quest (5 commandments of Christ) | The commandment of non-resistance to evil by violence. Do not commit adultery, keep your family life pure Never take revenge on anyone, do not justify your feelings of revenge by saying that you were offended, tolerate insults Do not swear or swear to anything or anyone Remember that all people are brothers - and learn to see the good in your enemies. |
- Exercise "Sinquain"" (a French word meaning five lines.
Writing rules:
1st line - one word, usually a noun or pronoun, which contains the object or subject that will be discussed in the syncwine;
2nd line - two words, most often adjectives or participles, describing the signs or properties of the selected object;
The 3rd line is formed by verbs or other verbal forms that describe the characteristic actions performed by a given object or subject;
4th line - a phrase of three, four or five words, expressing the personal attitude of the author of the syncwine to the described object or object;
Line 5 contains one or two words characterizing the essence of the subject or object
Topics for syncwine
"Student " | "Lesson" | "Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy" |
Student. Knowledgeable, inquisitive. | Lesson. Educational, interesting. | Tolstoy. Famous, famous. |
Read, wrote, researched. | Teaches, educates, reveals. | Educates, worries, writes. |
I learned a lot of new things. | An important topic for us. | About the problems of all generations. |
Satisfied! | Thank you for the lesson! | Great teacher! |
TRKM - technology for the development of critical thinking (abbreviation generally accepted in methodological and scientific literature)
Alekseeva M.A. Generalization of the work experience of a teacher of Russian language and literature of the highest category, Municipal Educational Institution Secondary School No. 4, Tobolsk, 2012
“Development of critical thinking in the classroom.” Authors: S.I. Zaire-Bek, I.V. Mushtavinskaya. Moscow, “Enlightenment”, 2004.
